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Source: Studio WeaveInitial concept design, the pavilion resets the visitors relationship with the forecourt and landscapeThe British Museum has announced that Studio Weave, leading a multidisciplinary team including Wright & Wright Architects, Webb Yates Engineers, Tom Massey Studio, and Daisy Froud, has been selected to design new visitor welcome pavilions as part of its wider masterplan.The visitor welcome pavilions are intended to improve the experience of visitors arriving via the museums forecourt on Great Russell Street and from Montague Place. The pavilions, which will incorporate soft landscaping, are expected to be complete by spring 2026, subject to planning approvals.Nicholas Cullinan, Director of the British Museum, commented: As the most visited building in the UK, and one of the top three most visited museums in the world, first impressions count. With the visitor welcome pavilions were striving to create the most inspiring greeting possible for the 6.2 million people (and counting) from across the nation and around the world who come through our doors each year whether its their first visit or fifteenth, aged 5 or 95.Je Ahn, Founding Director of Studio Weave, stated: Our proposal aims to resolve complex issues on the site. The project will preserve the appearance of the historic Grade I listed buildings, address the changing climate, and look forward to the future of the institution. It will also introduce new soft landscaping and plants, dotted with engaging installations encouraging curiosity and becoming a memorable highlight of every visit.> Also read:British Museum names finalists in competition to create new entrance experiencesThe visitor welcome pavilions form part of the British Museums broader masterplan, a long-term programme intended to address the museums infrastructure and visitor experience challenges while modernising its facilities. This includes a major overhaul of the Western Range, which holds one-third of the Museums gallery space, along with significant back-of-house areas. The complex, comprising buildings from the 1850s alongside later additions, requires upgrades to meet modern performance standards, with consideration for its significant heritage fabric.The competition to select the lead architect for the Western Range project is ongoing, with submissions from five shortlisted teams 6a architects, David Chipperfield Architects, Eric Parry Architects and Jamie Fobert Architects, Lina Ghotmeh Architecture, and OMA currently on public display in the museums reading room.Alex Surguladze, Head of Design Management at the British Museum, explained: The British Museum has embarked upon the largest redevelopment in its near 300-year history, and the success of such an ambitious project is dependent upon the support of our neighbours and the wider public.As part of its masterplan, the museum is also progressing other key projects, including the recently completed British Museum Archaeological Research Collection facility in Reading and the construction of a new Energy Centre at its Camden site. The Energy Centre is intended to phase out fossil fuel use and align with the museums decarbonisation targets.

A fully funded one-year pilot programme aims to address systemic inequities in the built environment sector by supporting under-represented SMEs through mentorship, business development, and practical learning opportunitiesSource: Patrick DempseyNeil Shasore and Dian Small, London School of ArchitectureThe London School of Architecture (LSA), in partnership with the Greater London Authority (GLA) and The Crown Estate, has announced the launch of Good Growth in Practice, a fully funded one-year pilot programme designed to support under-represented small- and medium-sized enterprise (SME) practice owners in the built environment sector.The programme seeks to address systemic inequities within the industry, focusing on practice owners from groups that have historically faced barriers to accessing public and private sector work. Eight London-based practices will be selected for the initiative, which aims to equip participants with tailored upskilling and mentorship opportunities.Good Growth in Practice is intended to enhance diversity among SMEs involved in public procurement and other opportunities within the built environment. The programme will focus on practicesthat have been operating for five to ten years and seek to provide them with tools to navigate the challenges associated with this critical phase of development.The programme is led by Dian Small, former director of RIBA London and a long-standing advocate for inclusivity and sustainability within the built environment.Our aim is to cultivate an ecosystem where under-represented practices can flourish, said Small. We will provide tailored knowledge, support and targeted opportunities to empower these firms. By the end of the programme, they wont just have learned about good growth theyll have practised it, embodied it, and be poised to drive it forward in the industry.Applications for the programme are open until 31 January 2025, with the 12-month programme set to commence in spring 2025.The initiative builds on the Mayor of Londons Good Growth by Design programme, which aims to ensure growth across the city is inclusive, environmentally sustainable, and beneficial to all communities. According to the LSA, Good Growth in Practice seeks to deliver on commitments outlined in the Mayors Good Growth by Design Forward Plan (2022) by providing targeted support to under-represented practices.Good growth is defined as development that is inclusive, sustainable, and sensitive to local communities. Jules Pipe CBE, deputy mayor for planning, regeneration, and skills, highlighted the need for greater representation across the built environment sector.A built environment sector that is representative of Londons diversity is needed to support Good Growth growth that is socially and economically inclusive, accessible, environmentally sustainable and contextual to local places and communities, said Pipe.> Also read:Beyond the Box: delivering real social value in the built environment> Also read:Why building inclusion should be seen as a professional obligationParticipants will engage with three main components of the programme: masterclasses focused on developing practical business and project management skills; a mentorship scheme connecting them with industry experts, clients, and service providers; and a self-directed project that applies these learnings in real-world scenarios with structured support.Recent data from the ARB shows that only 12% of architects in London identify as Black, Asian, or minority ethnic (BAME), compared to 38% of the citys working-age population. Disability representation is similarly low, with only 1% of architects identifying as disabled, compared to 18% of the wider population.The LSA describes Good Growth in Practice as a programme that aims to bridge these gaps by providing established under-represented practices with the tools to succeed in public and private sector procurement frameworks.Clare Harrison, development director at The Crown Estate, emphasised the importance of fostering diversity across the sector.Good Growth in Practice will provide an environment for progress across the sector fostering more diversity to overcome the challenges we collectively face, said Harrison.PostscriptFor further details on the programme and application requirements, visit the London School of Architecture website.

The practice, which has worked on several projects for The Crown Estate since participating In the AJs Office for the Future competition In 2016, aimed to transform its existing commercial property through the creation of flexible and healthy office spaces to support greater collaboration between occupants.This thinking was applied to 12 Little Portland Street, a Grade II-listed office building dating from the 1920s, close to Oxford Circus and Broadcasting House.Threefold based its overall approach to the project on four principles: minimising waste through auditing, preserving and re-use; restoring heritage; future-proofing fabric; and creating workspaces that promote wellbeing.AdvertisementGiven the desire to move away from the model of large, single occupiers in the post-pandemic working environment, the remodelled building now provides smaller, more flexible and fully accessible spaces to attract a diverse occupancy mix and support hybrid working.The buildings fabric and services have been significantly upgraded to improve energy performance and address the circular economy, according to the practice, with extensive use of natural and reclaimed materials. Threefolds interventions aimed to celebrate the grandeur of the existing building, including restoring the faade. Internally, the generous proportions of each space have been maximised, window reveals have been enhanced and period features refurbished and echoed by new design elements, while planting and colour add visual interest.A new BMS provides fully upgraded mechanical and electrical services throughout the building, while heating and cooling are served via a high-efficiency recovery condenser.Existing raised access floors were removed and reused in other projects while existing primary and secondary glazing was fully reused on site.The roof now features a new terrace for outdoor events plus extensive all year-round foliage in line with the Wild West End greening strategy to encourage biodiversity and improve air quality. Bee blocks and bird and bat boxes have also been incorporated into the external walls to support urban wildlife.AdvertisementArchitects viewThe 12 Little Portland Street project presented a fantastic opportunity to work with The Crown Estate to revitalise a heritage building and, in doing so; create a series of modern workspaces that promote health, happiness and wellbeing.This project celebrates heritage, promotes decarbonisation, enhances biodiversity and demonstrates how through sensitive and innovative design, existing buildings can be adapted to have bright and flexible futures.Jack Hosea, founding director, Threefold ArchitectsProject dataStart on site November 2022CompletionNovember 2024Gross internal floor area 2,484m2Form of contractDesign and BuildConstruction cost 6.1 millionConstruction cost per m2 2,451Architect Threefold ArchitectsExecutive architect Gravity DesignClient The Crown EstateStructural engineer Heyne Tillet SteelM&E consultant Watkins PayneQS QuantemAcoustic consultant Hann Tucker AssociatesProject manager Dendy ByrneCDM co-ordinator TFT consultantsApproved building inspector Assent BCMain contractor Artemis interior ServicesCAD software used VectorworksEnvironmental performance dataPercentage of floor area with daylight factor >2% Not availablePercentage of floor area with daylight factor >5% Not availableOn-site energy generation NilAnnual mains water consumption 5.28 m3/occupantAirtightness at 50Pa Not availableHeating and hot water load 28.86 kWh/m2/yrOverall area-weighted U-value Not availableDesign life 15 years (services only)Embodied carbon 199.35 kgCO2eq/m2Whole-life carbon 585.06 kgCO2eq/m2Annual CO2 emissions 23.9 kgCO2eq/m2

Hisense has taken the wraps off its new HT Saturn audio system which is designed to pair with premium Hisense TVs. Now, I've been reviewing soundbars since soundbars were first a thing (in the early 2000s). It's not often that a TV sound system comes out that piques my interest, but it seems that the Hisense HT Saturn has that certain "it factor."This is a five-piece surround system with four identical satellites and a wireless 6.5-inch subwoofer. The system includes 13 speakers in all, and it reminds me quite a bit of the $2,000-plus Sony HT-9, though it's undoubtedly going to cost a lot less than that.The HT Saturn sound system is compatible with both Dolby Atmos and DTS:X technology, The system has room calibration when paired with a Hisense TV and is able to use the television's onboard speaker as a center. Connections include HDMI eARC, optical and Bluetooth 5.3. The system is also wall-mountable, which makes the cube-ish shape easier to manage when combining with a TV.There's no shortage of soundbars out there, and a plethora of TV stereo systems too, but I'm interested to hear more about the Hisense HT Saturn when it debuts at CES 2025. Pricing and availability is yet to be announced.

Listen up, we're about to get more X-Men goodness on our screens, thanks to the newest -- and final -- season of Marvel's animated anthology, What If..., which switches up storyline outcomes and timelines in ways we haven't seen.First introduced in 2021, the Marvel Cinematic Universe series bent realities for some your favorite superheroes, with plots drawn from a comic book line that ran from 1977 to 1984. The show partnered T'Challa and Yondu together, taking the king out of Wakanda and turning him into a space-traveling version of Star Lord. Season 2 brought Iron Man in for a death race against The Grandmaster, and this year has more surprises in store, like an appearance from Storm.It's a welcome addition after watching X-Men '97 and Logan in Deadpool & Wolverine this year, so MCU fans, get ready to be surprised and entertained. In this final batch of episodes, viewers will also see Agatha Harkness, Echo, Hulk, Red Guardian, The Watcher and, er, Howard the Duck.Down below, we're letting you know when to catch What If... season 3 on Disney Plus.Read more:Streaming Guide December 2024: You're Gonna Need Disney Plus, Netflix and These Other ServicesRelease date for What If... season 3Disney Plus is the place to be onSunday, Dec. 22, at 6 p.m. PT or 9 p.m. ET when Marvel's What If... season 3 premieres.The show will have eight episodes, with a new one dropping each day until its finale on Dec. 29.If you're not subscribed to the streaming service, you can sign up for Disney Plus on its own or tap into one of the many Disney Bundles. James Martin/CNET Disney Plus starts at $10 per month for standalone subscriptions, but you may choose to get the Disney Bundle, which packages the service with Hulu and/or ESPN Plus. Bundles can save money -- whether you want to stream with or without ads. Viewers also have the option to try the new bundle package offered from Max, Hulu and Disney Plus, which starts at $17 per month. Read our Disney Plus review. See at Disney Plus

You might already know about the federal child tax credit and have a plan to claim it in 2025, but did you know your state might also offer its own child tax credit? In some cases, these state-level offerings can net you thousands of dollars more per child, and if you live in Minnesota, a new program could net you even more throughout the year.Either at the state or the federal level, child tax credits can offer a financial lifeline to parents, helping to put money into their pockets each year for each child they have. While the temporary expansion of the federal child tax credit is set to expire in 2026(PDF) unless Congress acts to extend it, parents in a handful of states might also be eligible for additional state-level credits, though the amounts offered and the requirements for eligibility vary by quite a bit.The impact of child tax credits has been considerable, even just in the last few years, with studies into the 2021 temporary expansion of the federal credit finding that it was a significant factor in reducing childhood poverty. Columbia University's Center on Poverty and Social Policy found that the payments reduced the monthly rates of child poverty by nearly 30%, with payments reaching roughly 61 million children.Read on to find out if your state offers a child tax credit and whether your family qualifies for it. For more on taxes, find out how the IRS might be handling payment apps and how new income tax brackets might affect you.What is a child tax credit?With a child tax credit, eligible tax payers may be able to reduce their income tax based on how many children they claim as dependents.First introduced in 1997, the federal-level credit currently offers $2,000 per child, with only $1,600 of that amount being refundable, which means that you can receive that amount even if you don't owe that much in taxes. The remaining $400 is nonrefundable, so it can only be used to lower your tax burden.The federal credit's current value was set by the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, which temporarily bumped the credit through Dec. 31, 2025. After that date, without any additional expansion by Congress, the credit is set to revert to its previous amount: $1,000, nonrefundable, per dependent child under 16.Which states offer a child tax credit?Whatever happens to the federal child tax credit by 2026, parents in the following 16 states can rest a little easier knowing that they might also be able to get a state-level credit: Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Utah and Vermont.However, the specifics of these credits -- including how much they are worth, how much is refundable and what counts as a dependent child -- will vary greatly depending on the state.What is Minnesota's child tax credit advance payment option?On Tuesday, Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz unveiled a new child tax credit option available to taxpayers in the North Star state known as "advance payment." If a Minnesota resident who's eligible for the state credit files for this new option during the 2025 tax season, not only will they receive their full credit for that year as usual -- the amount of which you can find below -- but they will also receive the credit they would receive in 2026 early. According to the new policy, the advance payment of the next year's child tax credit will be paid in increments throughout the second half of 2025."The goal of this nation-leading tax credit is to lower child poverty and provide tax relief for working-class families in Minnesota," Walz said. "With the advance payment option, we're making it easier for families to manage their annual household budget. This new option will increase financial freedom and ensure families have the support they need all year long."How much is each state child tax credit and who is eligible?Here are the 16 states offering child tax credits as of October 2024, according to theNational Conference of State Legislatures. Eligibility and amount varies by state, with 12 of the states making the credit refundable, so you can get a refund even if you don't owe tax.Arizona: $100 per dependent child under the age of 17, nonrefundable.California: $1,117 per qualifying dependent child under the age of 6, refundable. Income must be under $25,000 for full amount, amount reduced for families with income between $25,000 and $30,931. Must also qualify for the state's Earned Income Tax Credit.Colorado: Up to $3,200 per qualifying dependent under the age of 16, refundable. Exact amount will vary based on income, filing status, and the age of the child.Idaho: $205 per dependent child under the age of 17, nonrefundable.Illinois: Credit worth 20% of the state's Earned Income Tax Credit per dependent child under the age of 12, refundable.Maine: $300 per dependent child under the age of 17, refundable.Maryland: $500 per qualifying dependent child under the age of 17, refundable. However, the child must have a disability and the family's adjusted gross income must be $6,000 or less to qualify.Massachusetts: $180 for one dependent child under the age of 12, or $360 for two or more, refundable. Credit also applicable for adults 65 or older or anyone with a disability.Minnesota: $1,750 per dependent child, refundable, for individual filers making $29,500 or less, or $35,000 for joint filers.New Jersey: $500 per dependent child under the age of 6 for taxpayers making less than $30,000, refundable. Creditdecreases in increments of $100 as income bracket increases, with the smallest credit, $100 per dependent, available to those with income of $120,000-$150,000.New Mexico: Between $75 and $175 per dependent child under the age of 17, depending on income level, refundable.New York: Credit is whichever value is higher for the taxpayer: either 33% of the portion of the federal child tax credit and federal additional child tax credit attributable to qualifying children, or $100 times the number of qualifying children. Credit refundable, children must be 16 or younger.Oklahoma: 5% of the federal child tax credit per household, nonrefundable. Not available for married couples filing jointly with gross income over $100,000.Oregon: $1,000 per dependent child under the age of 5, refundable. Only available for families making less than $30,000.Utah: $1,000 per dependent child between the ages of 1 and 3, nonrefundable. Credit decreases by $10 for every $1 of income over a certain threshold: $27,000 for married filing separately filers, $43,000 for single filers or $54,000 for joint filers.Vermont: $1,000 per dependent child under the age of 5 for taxpayers making less than $125,000, refundable.For more, check out CNET's pick of thebest tax software you can get in 2024.

December 20, 20243 min readWhat Gives Christmas Trees Their Crisp, Cozy Scent?Learn which molecules are responsible for giving Christmas trees their distinct, crisp-yet-spicy scentBy Meghan Bartels edited by Lauren J. Young Iuliia Bondar/Getty ImagesNothing smells quite like a Christmas treebut where does that magical woodsy-yet-cozy aroma come from? You can thank a ubiquitous category of chemicals called terpenes.Terpenes are the largest class of naturally produced chemicals in the world, says Justin Whitehill, a plant pathologist who researches Christmas trees full time at North Carolina State University. Theyre found in pretty much all plant species.Terpenes can play a wide range of beneficial ecological roles: they can protect plants from hungry predators and parasites, attract pollinators, and help plants tolerate stressful conditions. The specific terpenes producedas well as the purposes they serve and the aromas they createvary between different species.On supporting science journalismIf you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing. By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.But terpenes can also be dangerous to a plant itself, Whitehill says, and so in firs, for example, these chemicals are sequestered away from the rest of the trees tissue in a protective liquid botanists call resin. The thick liquid is kept in specialized ducts in the outer bark and needles where it can be oozed out as the tree needs, such as to patch an injury and reduce the likelihood of infection. It hardens when exposed to air, and its what makes your hands sticky after handling a Christmas tree. Resin is often mistakenly called sap, which properly refers to the watery liquid that carries nutrients and sugars throughout a tree. Sap is present in all trees, whereas resin is only produced by certain species.Small terpenes have relatively low boiling points, at which they become a gas and create an odor our nose can detect, and its these smaller terpenes that produce the woodsy, characteristic scents of Christmas once a tree is placed indoors and warms up slightly, Whitehill says. But a tree has only so many terpenes to release, so the scent is finite. This is one reason why he recommends displaying a Christmas tree in a cooler part of your house, which can keep the treeand its scentfresher for longer.Sharp-nosed folks may also notice that their trees scent shifts over the course of its residence indoors, Whitehill notes. There are some individual compounds that have different boiling points, and so the bouquet of those trees will change over time from an intense pine aroma to one thats maybe a bit sweeter, he says.Whitehill is most familiar with the array of terpenes produced by Fraser firs, which dominate Christmas tree farms in North Carolina, where he works. And he says that careful sniffing can pick up on the slight differences in terpene profiles between these firs and other species of Christmas trees. One thing I have noticed that makes Fraser fir a little unique is that it has sort of a sweet aroma in addition to that holiday bouquet, Whitehill says. It has this kind of sweet, almost piney, woodsy aroma that is just really inviting.(Why do many of us like the scent so much? Whitehill says he suspects its thanks to a combination of the aroma itself and the memories it summons of holiday seasons past.)Although smaller terpenes create a trees scent, larger terpenes may help it last, Whitehill says. In balsam firs, scientists have found a particularly interesting large terpene called cis-abienol, which is surprisingly similar in structure to a chemical long used by the perfume industry to make scents linger. Whether cis-abienol plays a similar role in Christmas trees, and whether it could be harvested for the perfume industry, remains to be determined.Another terpene topic Whitehill and his colleagues are investigating is whether genetically modifying a tree can change its scent profile. Can we start developing trees that have not only that classic Fraser fir bouquet but maybe get a little crazy and develop something like a peppermint mocha or a minty Christmas tree? Whitehill says. How far can we go with it?

December 20, 20244 min readOur Bodies Are So Ready to Celebrate the Rebirth of the SunThe winter solstice is the culmination of a period every year when each cell in our body literally craves more lightBy Gary Stix edited by Dean VisserWinter solstice in snowy forest. Iryna Khabliuk/Alamy Stock PhotoThe moment when Earths Northern Hemisphere tilts farthest away from the sunthe December solstice, on the 21st this yearis not just a mark on the calendar. It is also defined by the way our bodies react to the event. The dimming of our daily ration of natural light leading up to the winter solstice produces a series of conspicuous physiological changes.These changes relate to circadian rhythms. The word circadian derives from the Latin circa diem, meaning about a day. It signifies the way animals, plants, fungi and bacteria react to environmental cues, including inputs of light, on a daily and seasonal basis.Sofia Axelrod is a chronobiologist at Rockefeller University who studies circadian rhythms and their impact on physiology and behavior. Her research in the laboratory of Nobelist Michael Young on circadian rhythms, sleep and longevity made her an ideal candidate to ask about how the solstice and the darkened days leading up to it affect creatures that range from fruit flies (the animals she began her studies on) to humans.On supporting science journalismIf you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing. By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.[An edited transcript of the interview follows.]What happens to our bodily rhythms at higher latitudes on the shortest day of the year?Our bodily rhythms are set by light. Your internal bodily clock can get out of sync with the real time when, say, you travel east to west and light exposure is shifted. That also happens with the shortest day of the year because your light exposure in the summer is four to eight hours earlier than in the winter. In Berlin, where Im from, sunrise is 3:45 A.M. on June 21 and 8:15 A.M. on December 21. So right now were not getting the daylight signal until hours after we have to get up to go to school or work, which feels horrible and is unhealthy for our circadian rhythm. And so you have this delayed onset of the circadian stimulus, which is supposed to tell your body through the eyes and a specialized brain structure that its time to start activating [transcribing and translating] a set of so-called clock genes that are basically like a secretary of all cells and tell other cells when to do what.On top of that, were also not getting enough sunlight throughout the day because it gets dark so early: 3:56 P.M. in Berlin, to stay with that example. Its dark hours before were supposed to get sleepy, and that can have detrimental effects on peoples mood, energy levels and sleep, and worsen sundowning in older people with dementiaengendering confusion, agitation and sleep disturbances.How do people with sleep disturbances react?What you see in the winter is that people, if left to their own devices, get out of bed later because theyre simply not getting this light stimulation to start the day for them. Also, with the effect of indoor illumination in our modern society, there are significant changes in our sleep-wake duration.We all experience this. Its very hard to get out of bed when its pitch black, and conversely, in the summer, its very hard to sleep when you are in a very bright room and are getting a lot of early sunlight at 4 A.M. Is all of this healthy? Is it not healthy? Nothing that I just described suggests either way.But light sensitivity varies among people. Generally, there is no problem with this unless it somehow interferes with your ability to function. A lot of people have trouble getting out of bed without light, and then they have a hard time functioning during the day. Thats when it gets tricky because there is a phenomenon of a lack of sunlight in the winter causing seasonal affective disorder, a circadian disruption that causes people to just feel really down. And that is a real thing that is entirely caused by the lack of light.Its not just the duration of the shortest day of the of the year in terms of when the sun comes up. Its also the overall light level in higher latitudes. In New York City, where I am, on some days, its just very dim. The light level never reaches the amount or the dose that is required to instruct your circadian rhythm. If that is a prolonged state of your environment, that causes significant disruption of the circadian clockwhich basically doesnt do its job of organizing your cellular functions anymore. And one output of that is depression.Is an effect such as depression particularly acute in the immediate period around the winter solstice?Yes, especially for people who get up early and then go basically to work in the dark, sit in a windowless office with indoor illumination that does not provide them with circadian stimulation, and then go home when its dark again. Basically, they have spent, potentially, weeks in complete circadian darkness. And, of course, all of this is most acute around the solstice because its the shortest day of the year, and then it gets better again. And people describe this in some cultures as a reawakening, and its really a reawakening of the circadian clock.Are there other effects besides depression? How does the solstice affect something such as resistance to infection?All cells have circadian rhythms. If you dont get enough light because its winter, the immune system dampens. You stop making immune cellsT cells, macrophagesthat you need to fight infections at certain times of the day. Less light means a less functioning immune system and lower resistance to infection.There has been talk about getting rid of daylight saving time, including from the incoming presidential administration. Would that be a good thing?We shift our body twice a year with daylight savings, and that causes jet lag. That may not be a big deal for any given individual, but it is a big deal statistically at the overall population level. Heart attacks and traffic accidents jump the next day. Its just an unnecessary thing that we subject our whole country to, and we should get rid of it.

OpinionDecember 20, 20246 min readThe Forgotten History of the Discovery of Human BrainwavesThe centennial of the discovery of brain waves in humans exposes a chilling tale involving Nazis, war between Russia and Ukraine, suicide and the vicissitudes of historyBy R. Douglas Fields edited by Daniel VerganoGerman psychiatrist Hans Berger recorded the first electroencephalogram of human brain waves in 1924. Ullstein bild via Getty ImagesThis year is the centennial of the discovery of human brain waves. Few people know the story of that startling finding, because the true story was suppressed and lost to history. Almost two decades ago I visited the pioneering scientists labs in Germany and Italy seeking answers. What I learned overturned accepted history and exposed a chilling tale involving Nazis, brainwaves, war between Russia and Ukraine, and suicide. This history resonates with current eventsRussia and Ukraine recently passed a grim 1,000-day milestone of a conflict waged on a pretext of battling Nazisrevealing how history, science and society are intricately entwined.Human brainwaves, oscillating waves of electricity that constantly sweep through brain tissue, change with our thoughts and perceptions. Their value in medicine is incalculable. They reveal all manner of neurological and psychological disorders to doctors and guide neurosurgeons hands when extracting diseased brain tissue that triggers seizures. Only newly appreciated, their role in the healthy brain is transforming our fundamental understanding of how the brain processes information. Like waves of all types, the electrical waves sweeping through the brain generate synchrony (think of water waves bobbing boats); in the case of brainwaves, whats synchronized is activity among populations of neurons.Who discovered brainwaves? What did they think theyd found? Why was there no Nobel Prize?On supporting science journalismIf you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing. By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.In the most common accounts, a reclusive physician, Hans Berger, recorded the first human brainwaves from his patients in a mental hospital in the German city of Jena in 1924 (later part of East Germany). He told no one what he was doing, and he kept his momentous findings secret for five years. As the Nazis rose to power in the 1930s, mental hospitals became the epicenter of forced sterilization and euthanasia to promote racial hygiene. Some of the methods developed in these facilities served as a prelude to the industrialized killing in concentration camps. As head of the mental hospital in Jena, Berger would have been in the thick of it. Biographies at the time of my visit stated that Berger committed suicide in 1941 from Nazi persecutionBerger was no adherent of Hitler and so he had to relinquish the service of his University; not having expected this, he was gravely hurt. [This] bestowed upon him a depression which finally killed him, wrote psychiatrist Rudolf Lemke, in a 1956 memorial. Lemke had worked under Berger.To me this seemed odd. Wouldnt the Nazis have dismissed Berger just as they purged 20 percent of German academics in 1933, and ruthlessly expelled or liquidated disloyal politicians, administrators and others?In Jena I learned that Lemke was in fact a member of the NSDP (Nazi party). He worked at the ErbgesundheitsgerichtAfter World War II Jena came under control of the Soviet Union, and documents revealing the widespread cover-up were lost or destroyed. When I visited Bergers hospital I met with neuroscientist Christoph Redies and medical historian Susanne Zimmermann, who had recently obtained Soviet records after the fall of the Berlin wall. They revealed that Berger was, in fact, a Nazi sympathizer. He committed suicide in the hospital, not in protest but because he suffered from depression, she says. In taking his own life, Bergers death mirrored the suicides of many others at the time who were involved in Nazi atrocities.Leafing through his dusty laboratory notebooks containing the earliest recordings of human brainwaves, Zimmermann pointed out marginal antisemitic comments he had written alongside them. She then pulled out a stack of records of proceedings in the forced sterilization court where Berger served in an era when eugenics sought to cull the unfit from parenthood. Hearing them read aloud brought to life the horrors that had taken place there, as people pleaded with the court not to sterilize them or their loved ones. Berger denied every appeal, condemning them all to forced sterilization.The hospital in Jena, Germany, where Berger discovered brainwaves.R. Douglas FieldsBergers EEG research was not well received. A believer in mental telepathy, Berger thought brainwaves could be the basis for mental telepathy, but he ultimately rejected that idea. Instead, he believed that brainwaves were a type of psychic energy. Like other forms of energy, waves of psychic energy could not be created or destroyed, but they could interact with physical phenomena. Based on this, he surmised that the work of mental cognition would cause temperature changes in the brain. He explored this idea by stabbing rectal thermometers into his mental patients' brains while they did cognitive tasks during surgery.Bergers research remained little known outside Germany until 1934 when Nobel Prizewinning neuroscientist Edgar Adrian published his experiments in the prestigious journal Brain. Adrian confirmed that the so-called Berger waves do exist, but he implicitly mocked them by showing that they changed in a water beetle when it opened and closed its eyes, in the same way they did in the Nobel Prizewinners brain when he did the same. Adrian never did further research on brainwaves.Berger is credited with the discovery of brainwaves in humans, but studies in animals predated his work. Nor did Berger invent the methods he used to monitor brain activity. He applied techniques used previously in animal experiments by Adolf Beck in Lww, Poland, in 1895, and Angelo Mosel in Turin, Italy.In contrast to Berger, Adolf Becks animal studies were intended to understand how the brain functions when neurons communicate by electrical impulses. At the peak of his research a Russian invasion halted his scientific work. In 1914 Lww was taken by invading Russians and renamed Lviv. Beck was captured and imprisoned in Kiev, then part of Russia (now Kyiv, Ukraine).While in prison he wrote to the famous Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov appealing for his help, and Pavlov eventually won Becks release.Beck returned to his research in Lviv, and the next logical step was to search for brainwaves in humans, but in World War II Germans invaded. They established a concentration camp in Lviv where the Jewish population was exterminated. As an intellectual and a Jew, Beck was a target. When they came to take Beck to the concentration camp in 1942, he swallowed cyanide, ending his own life rather than having it taken by the Nazis.Remarkably, both pioneering brainwave scientists committed suicide from Nazismone as Nazi perpetrator, the other as Nazi victim.Bergers grave in Jena.R. Douglas FieldsUnknown to both Berger and Beck, they were notbrain was an enigma and the world was lit by gas lamps and powered by steam. Imagine how much further ahead brain science and medicine would be now if this scientific discovery made in 1875 had not been lost to history for half a century.The first person to discover brainwaves was the London physician Richard Caton. Caton announced his discovery of brainwaves recorded in rabbits and monkey at the annual meeting of the British Medical Association in Edinburgh in 1875. He achieved this using a primitive device, a string galvanometer, in which a small mirror is suspended on a thread between magnets. When an electric current (picked up from the brain in this case) passes through the device, the string twists slightly like a compass needle near a magnet. The oscillating electrical currents detected in the brains were not measured in volts, but rather in millimeters of deflection of the light beam bounced off the mirror. The published abstract of his presentation The Electric Currents of the Brain shows that with this primitive instrument the physician correctly deduced the most important aspects of brainwaves. In every brain hitherto examined, the galvanometer has indicated the existence of electric currents. The electric currents of the grey matter appear to have a relation to its function.Ironically, I traveled the world to research the discovery of brainwaves, only to find that the first person to do so, Richard Caton, presented his findings in the U.S. in 1887 at Georgetown University while on a visit to his family in Catonsville, Md. The town, which was settled by his relatives 1787, is 30 miles from my home, next to the Baltimore-Washington Airport, from which I often embarked on my global search. But that fact, like his unappreciated brainwave research, was lost to history. Read my paper on the electrical currents of the brain, he wrote in his diary. It was well received but not understood by most of the audience.This is an opinion and analysis article, and the views expressed by the author or authors are not necessarily those of Scientific American.