Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, have developed a novel 3D printing technique capable of fabricating ultra-light, structurally complex antennas using a charge-guided multi-material deposition process. The method, called Charge Programmed Deposition (CPD), enables the direct 3D printing of electromagnetic devices with intricate metal-dielectric architectures, eliminating the need for traditional lithographic or subtractive manufacturing steps. Published in Nature Communications, the study presents CPD as a versatile platform for producing a wide range of antenna types, including transmitarrays, Vivaldi antennas, and horn antennas, using commercially available desktop SLA printers. The technique allows for the integration of high-conductivity metals and various dielectrics within a single build, reducing part count, weight, and manufacturing complexity. 3D printing guided by surface polarity At the core of the CPD process is a charge-based material programming method. During stereolithographic printing, the researchers assign different charge polarities, positive, negative, or neutral, to various regions of a printed patterned dielectric substrate. This “charge mosaic” determines where metals adhere during selective electroless plating. Only oppositely charged regions attract the metal ions, enabling precise, toolpath-free patterning of conductive traces in three dimensions. Following printing, the part undergoes a chemical treatment sequence; palladium ions are deposited as a catalyst, then copper is plated onto the charged areas. The process yields smooth, crack-free copper paths with a conductivity of 4.9 × 10⁷ S/m, comparable to annealed copper and well suited for high-frequency applications. A Charge programmed printing and deposition scheme. B–F Photos of charge programmed deposition additive manufactured antennas: B a gradient phase transmitarray with three layers of interpenetrating S-rings and dielectric materials; C a Vivaldi antenna; D a 3D folded electrically small antenna; E a tree fractal antenna; F a horn antenna with a septum polarizer. Image via Nature Communications. Structural and functional complexity The researchers demonstrated the method’s flexibility by fabricating a circularly polarized 19 GHz transmitarray antenna featuring three layers of interpenetrating S-ring unit cells. Weighing just 5 grams, the transmitarray achieved a 94% weight reduction compared to an equivalent PCB-based design, while maintaining high directivity and gain. A horn antenna, also fabricated using CPD, features a septum polarizer and meandered waveguide transition, demonstrating the method’s capability to create complex internal channels. Additional examples included folded miniaturized antennas, fractal geometries, and stretchable designs using elastomers and liquid metal alloys. To overcome build volume limitations, the team designed a modular tiling strategy for antenna arrays, enabling the assembly of larger aperture systems without performance loss. A Schematic of the composition regulated copper deposition. B Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image showing the cross section of copper cladding on the dielectric material. C Atomic force microscopic image showing the dense and smooth copper deposited on the negative resin. D SEM image showing the smallest feature size of CPD. E–H Demonstration of the enabled complex 3D antenna structures and compatibility with a wide range of materials: E a 3D folded electrically small antenna with interpenetrating metal and dielectric materials based on a commercial ultra-low dielectric loss resin, F polyimide (PI) with selectively patterned copper, G a stretchable patch antenna with liquid metal eutectic gallium-indium alloy as the conducting phase, and H a lead zirconate titanate (PZT) ceramic antenna for global positioning system (GPS) application. Image via Nature Communications. Toward scalable, low-cost antenna production Unlike other multi-material additive methods, CPD does not require multiple printheads, substrate alignment, or high-temperature sintering. Instead, it leverages standard SLA printers with manual resin swapping, making the process both cost-effective and accessible. Materials explored include polymers, polyimide, ceramics, and elastomers, with tailored resin formulations to support charge modulation and copper deposition. This research significantly lowers the barrier to fabricating custom, high-performance antennas for space-limited or weight-sensitive platforms. CPD enables rapid prototyping, design iteration, and on-demand manufacturing without the material waste and complexity of subtractive methods or multi-step assembly.Future developments will focus on automating resin handling, expanding material palettes, and integrating other functional coatings, such as magnetic or piezoelectric films, for next-generation electronic systems.The authors see immediate applications in CubeSats, 6G base stations, and portable or wearable devices, especially where weight, geometry, and performance must be tightly controlled. A, B Schematic comparison of A conventional lithographic transmitarray unit cell with B ultralight transmitarray unit cell printed with CPD. C Weight comparison between the ultralight transmitarray and a traditional PCB process manufactured transmitarray of a similar design at the same frequency (estimated based on the design in ref. 36). D, E Photos showing the complex metal-dielectric structure of copper and acrylate polymer. F The transmission coefficient (|TLR|: left-hand; |TRR|: right-hand) of the unit cell under right-hand circularly polarized incidence with different incident angles (θinc). G Transmitarray simulation (Simu.) and measured (Meas.) results at 19 GHz for the co-polarized (Co-pol) left-hand circularly polarized (LHCP, solid lines) and cross-polarized (X-pol) right-hand circularly polarized (RHCP, dashed lines) components. H Horizontally tiling scheme. I, J The assembly of the 12-cm and 20-cm diameter transmitarray antenna. K LHCP (Co-Polarized) and RHCP (Cross-Polarized) experimental data in 0°-cut of AIOP and tiled 12-cm transmitarray at 19 GHz. Image via Nature Communications. Advancements in 3D printed antenna research As antenna demands evolve, 3D printing continues to emerge as a key enabler of design flexibility and performance improvements. For instance, researchers at the University of Sheffield have developed 3D printed 5G and 6G antennas  that can be manufactured faster and more cheaply than current aerials, demonstrating radio frequency performance akin to that of conventionally produced antennas.  Similarly, the US Navy Research Laboratory has utilized 3D printing to fabricate optimized cylindrical antenna arrays, achieving more compact and lightweight designs compared to traditional methods. ​ These advancements underscore the growing role of 3D printing in producing efficient, cost-effective, and customizable antenna solutions for various applications.​ Schematic for all 3D printed antenna system consisted of a horn antenna and a transmitarray. B Photo of the assembled 20-cm transmitarray being measured. C The comparison between the simulated pattern and the measured pattern of the 20-cm transmitarray, at 19 GHz (solid line: the co-polarized LHCP pattern; dashed line: the cross-polarized RHCP pattern). D The measured directivity and axial ratio of the 20-cm transmitarray over frequency. E Schematic for a beam steerable RPA comprised of a gradient-phase transmitarray (GPTA) and a gradient-phase feed array (GPFA). F Photo of the printed RPA being measured for its radiation pattern. G Representative measured RPA patterns showing beams at 0° and 60°, when using different panel orientations. Image via Nature Communications. What 3D printing trends should you watch out for in 2025? How is the future of 3D printing shaping up? Subscribe to the 3D Printing Industry newsletter to keep up with the latest 3D printing news. You can also follow us onLinkedIn and subscribe to the 3D Printing Industry Youtube channel to access more exclusive content. Featured image shows CPD-printed horn antenna with integrated polarizer. Image via Nature Communications / UC Berkeley.