From August 23rd - September 14th, 2023 (Kodiak, Alaska to Seward, Alaska), NOAA Ocean Exploration conducted Seascape Alaska 5: Gulf of Alaska Remotely Operated Vehicle Exploration and Mapping (EX2306), a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and mapping expedition to the Gulf of Alaska on NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer. Operations during this 23-day expedition included the completion of 19 successful remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives, which were conducted in water depths ranging from 253.1 m to 4261.5 m for approximately 87 hours of bottom time and resulted in the collection of 383 samples. EX2306 also collected more than 28,000 sq. km of seafloor bathymetry and associated water column data using an EM 304 multibeam sonar. These images were captured on dives that were included in the source data for the How Little We’ve Seen: A Visual Coverage Estimate of the Deep Seafloor paper. They are good general reference imagery for the type of deep ocean observations captured by ROVs.(Image Courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsKey Takeaways on Deep Ocean Exploration: We have visually explored less than 0.001 percent of the deep sea floor. To put that in perspective, 66 percent of the planet is deep ocean, and 99.999 percent of that ocean is unknown to us.Like ecosystems on land, the sea has a complex food web. Most of life in the sea depends on detritus, mostly phytoplankton, falling down from the surface, something called “marine snow.”Organisms that live in shallow water absorb carbon dioxide and take that with them when they sink to the bottom, often to be buried in deep-sea sediment. This is known as a carbon sink. It’s important to know the rates at which this happens, because this partially offsets the carbon we’re adding to the atmosphere. It’s been said many times that we know more about the moon than our own ocean. But is it really true that we’ve explored only a tiny portion of the sea?Katy Croff Bell wondered about this, too. Bell is an oceanographer and the founder of the Ocean Discovery League. She knew that Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and others have been operating deep-sea submersibles like Alvin for decades, and there are facilities in 20 or so places around the world doing deep-sea research. But how much of the sea floor have these projects actually explored visually, not just mapped or sampled?Mapping the Deep OceanBell started looking up dive data and doing some math. “I stayed up way too late and came up with a very, very tiny number,” she recalls. She didn’t believe her own results and got everyone she could think of to double-check her math. But the results held. Over the next four years, she and her team compiled a database of dives from organizations and individuals around the world, and the data support her initial estimate. The number is indeed tiny. It turns out that we have visually explored less than 0.001 percent of the deep sea floor. To put that in perspective, 66 percent of the planet is deep ocean, and 99.999 percent of that ocean is unknown to us. Bell and her team published their findings in May 2025 in the journal Science Advances.Why Deep Sea Exploration MattersFrom July 14 - July 25, 2023, NOAA Ocean Exploration and partners conducted the third in a series of Seascape Alaska expeditions on NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer. Over the course of 12 days at sea, the team conducted 6 full remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives, mapped nearly 16,000 square kilometers (6,180 square miles), and collected a variety of biological and geological samples. When combined with numerous biological and geological observations, data from the Seascape Alaska 3: Aleutians Remotely Operated Vehicle Exploration and Mapping expedition will help to establish a baseline assessment of the ocean environment, increase understanding of marine life and habitats to inform management decisions, and increase public awareness of ocean issues. These images were captured on dives that were included in the source data for the How Little We’ve Seen: A Visual Coverage Estimate of the Deep Seafloor paper. They are good general reference imagery for the type of deep ocean observations captured by ROVs. (Image Courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration)About 26 percent of the ocean has been mapped with multi-beam sonar, explains Bell, and that gives us an idea of the shape of the ocean floor. But that’s like looking at a topographical map of an area you’re planning to hike. You know where the hills and valleys are, but you have no idea what kind of plants and animals you’re likely to encounter. If you want to understand the deep ocean, you need to get down there and see what kind of rocks and sediment are there, learn about the corals and sponges and other animals living there, she says. Samples of ocean life are helpful, but they do not give anything like a full picture of the life-forms in the deep sea, and more importantly, they tell you little about the complex ecosystems they’re a part of. But when you put mapping and sampling together with visual data, plus data about temperature, depths, and salinity, Bell says, you start to build a picture of what a given ocean habitat is like, and eventually, the role of that habitat in the global ocean system.The Deep-Sea "Snow" That Provides LifeFrom August 23rd - September 14th, 2023 (Kodiak, Alaska to Seward, Alaska), NOAA Ocean Exploration conducted Seascape Alaska 5: Gulf of Alaska Remotely Operated Vehicle Exploration and Mapping (EX2306), a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and mapping expedition to the Gulf of Alaska on NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer. Operations during this 23-day expedition included the completion of 19 successful remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives, which were conducted in water depths ranging from 253.1 m to 4261.5 m for approximately 87 hours of bottom time and resulted in the collection of 383 samples. EX2306 also collected more than 28,000 sq. km of seafloor bathymetry and associated water column data using an EM 304 multibeam sonar. These images were captured on dives that were included in the source data for the How Little We’ve Seen: A Visual Coverage Estimate of the Deep Seafloor paper. They are good general reference imagery for the type of deep ocean observations captured by ROVs. (Image Courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration)Like ecosystems on land, the sea has a complex food web. Most of life in the sea depends on detritus, mostly phytoplankton, falling down from the surface, something called “marine snow,” explains James Douglass, an ecologist at Florida Gulf Coast University who studies life on the sea bed. This snow of nutrients is eaten by what are called suspension feeders, including filter feeders, such as sponges and corals, which have tentacles or basket-like appendages to trap the snow. Then other organisms, such as crabs and worms, feed on these creatures. The crabs and worms, in turn, are eaten by fish. Deposit feeders, such as the sea pig, a type of sea cucumber that “trundles across the bottom eating mud all day,” add to the already huge variety of life, Douglass says. The types of organisms you have in the deep sea depend on how deep it is, whether the sea floor is rocky or muddy, how quickly currents bring food, and whether there are underwater hot springs or cold seeps, or other sources of extra energy, says Douglass. So yes, it’s a complicated world down there, and there’s an awful lot we don’t yet know.Deep-Sea Ecosystems and Climate Change From July 14 - July 25, 2023, NOAA Ocean Exploration and partners conducted the third in a series of Seascape Alaska expeditions on NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer. Over the course of 12 days at sea, the team conducted 6 full remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives, mapped nearly 16,000 square kilometers (6,180 square miles), and collected a variety of biological and geological samples. When combined with numerous biological and geological observations, data from the Seascape Alaska 3: Aleutians Remotely Operated Vehicle Exploration and Mapping expedition will help to establish a baseline assessment of the ocean environment, increase understanding of marine life and habitats to inform management decisions, and increase public awareness of ocean issues. These images were captured on dives that were included in the source data for the How Little We’ve Seen: A Visual Coverage Estimate of the Deep Seafloor paper. They are good general reference imagery for the type of deep ocean observations captured by ROVs. (Image Courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration)Learning about ocean ecosystems is extremely valuable as basic science. But it has a more urgent purpose as well. Though we often think of the land and the sea as two completely separate places, they are intertwined in many significant ways. The ocean has absorbed 90 percent of the excess heat and 30 percent of the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by humans, says Bell. “But we don’t really have a good understanding of how this is going to impact deep-sea ecosystems, and those ecosystems play a vital role in the process of carbon sequestration,” she says.When it comes to climate change, the deep sea has a lot to teach us. In parts of the deep sea, Douglass explains, nothing disturbs the layers of sediment that are deposited slowly over the course of thousands, even millions of years. Geologists can interpret the layers and study the fossils preserved in them to get an understanding of what the conditions of the planet were like in the distant past, similar to the way climatologists study Antarctic ice cores. “We've learned things about how the ocean ecosystem changes when climate changes. We've learned that some worrying things can happen under certain climate conditions in the deep ocean,” Douglass says. “For example, the ocean can become less oxygenated, which would be a catastrophic threat to deep-sea life.”The Deep Ocean and Climate RegulationAnd, of course, there’s carbon dioxide. “The deep sea is not just a passive record of what happened to the climate; it’s involved in regulating climate,” Douglass says. Organisms that live in shallow water absorb carbon dioxide and take that with them when they sink to the bottom, often to be buried in deep-sea sediment. This is known as a carbon sink. Douglass says it’s very important to know the rates at which this happens, because this partially offsets the carbon we’re adding to the atmosphere. “Deep-sea carbon storage is a huge element in our understanding of the planet's ability to regulate climate,” he adds.If we are to truly understand the way the entire planet works, we need to understand the deep sea and its complex ecosystems as well as life on land and in the shallows. And to do that, Bell says, we need to get down there and look.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Science Advances. How little we’ve seen: A visual coverage estimate of the deep seafloorAvery Hurt is a freelance science journalist. In addition to writing for Discover, she writes regularly for a variety of outlets, both print and online, including National Geographic, Science News Explores, Medscape, and WebMD. She’s the author of Bullet With Your Name on It: What You Will Probably Die From and What You Can Do About It, Clerisy Press 2007, as well as several books for young readers. Avery got her start in journalism while attending university, writing for the school newspaper and editing the student non-fiction magazine. Though she writes about all areas of science, she is particularly interested in neuroscience, the science of consciousness, and AI–interests she developed while earning a degree in philosophy.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

Photogrammetric reconstruction of the submarine USS F-1 on the seafloor west of San Diego, California. CREDIT: Image by Zoe Daheron, ©Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Get the Popular Science daily newsletter💡 Breakthroughs, discoveries, and DIY tips sent every weekday. In 1917, two US submarines collided off the coast of San Diego and submarine USS F-1 sank to the bottom of the Pacific Ocean, along with 19 crew members aboard. The horrible accident, whose wreckage was discovered in 1975, represents the US Naval Submarine Force’s first wartime submarine loss. Now, researchers from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution have captured new footage of the 1,300 feet-deep underwater archaeological site. “They were technical dives requiring specialized expertise and equipment,” Anna Michel, a co-lead of the expedition and chief scientist at the National Deep Submergence Facility, said in a statement. “We were careful and methodical in surveying these historical sites so that we could share these stunning images, while also maintaining the reverence these sites deserve.” The high-definition imagining and mapping of the USS F-1 took place during a deep-sea training and engineering mission in February and March. The missions aimed to train future submersible pilots and test the human-occupied vehicle Alvin and autonomous underwater vehicle Sentry.  The team captured never-seen-before images and videos and conducted a sonar survey, which essentially consists of mapping a region by shooting sound waves at it and registering the echo. Imaging specialists combined the 2D images into a 3D model of the wreck—a technique called photogrammetry. Using photogrammetry reveals measurements not just of the submarine but of the marine life that over the past century has claimed the vessel as its own.  Photogrammetric reconstruction of the submarine USS F-1 showing the sub’s stern and propeller. CREDIT: Image by Zoe Daheron, ©Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. “As a Navy veteran, making this dive—together with another Navy veteran and a Navy historian—was a solemn privilege,” said Office of Naval Research Program Officer Rob Sparrock, who was in Alvin when it went down to the wreck. “There was time to contemplate the risks that all mariners, past and present, face. It also reminded me of the importance of these training dives, which leverage the knowledge from past dives, lessons learned and sound engineering.” The researchers also investigated a Navy torpedo bomber training aircraft that went down in the region in 1950. After the dives, they held a remembrance ceremony aboard the research vessel Atlantis during which a bell rang once for each of the crew members lost in 1917.  “History and archaeology are all about people and we felt it was important to read their names aloud,” said Naval History and Heritage Command Underwater Archaeologist Brad Krueger, who also dove in Alvin. “The Navy has a solemn responsibility to ensure the legacies of its lost Sailors are remembered.”

Europa, a moon of Jupiter, has long been one of the most exciting targets in the search for life beyond Earth. Many scientists believe that an ocean lies below its icy surface, potentially hosting geologic activity capable of supporting life, but what happens on the moon’s seafloor is still largely a mystery. Although discussions on Europa are mostly centered around this hidden ocean, the shell of ice that envelops the moon has its own surprises. A study recently published in The Planetary Science Journal suggests that Europa’s surface ice is constantly changing. The evidence explored in the study paints a better picture of Europa’s outermost layer, and it may even reveal the interior processes that shape the moon’s unique structure. Europa's Surface IceEuropa has the smoothest surface out of any known object in our Solar System, but it’s far from lacking variety. The surface is rife with distinct geologic features, such as ridges, plains, and cracks, that cross over each other. Their disorderly appearance is linked to a fitting name, “chaos terrain.”Some regions with chaos terrain also provide insight on Europa’s surface ice. Most of Europa’s surface is made of amorphous ice, which lacks a crystalline structure. Scientists previously believed that Europa’s surface was entirely covered by a thin layer of amorphous ice, and that below this was crystalline ice (the form that most ice on Earth takes). However, the researchers involved with the new study have confirmed that certain areas of Europa’s surface contain crystalline ice, aligning with spectral data captured by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). This same ice also appears below the surface in these regions as well. “We think that the surface is fairly porous and warm enough in some areas to allow the ice to recrystallize rapidly,” said lead author Richard Cartwright, a spectroscopist at Johns Hopkins University, in a statement.Activity in the OceanA few other factors have convinced the researchers that an ocean exists below Europa's icy surface. The regions where ice recrystallizes show evidence of sodium chloride (what we know as table salt), carbon dioxide, and hydrogen peroxide. “Our data showed strong indications that what we are seeing must be sourced from the interior, perhaps from a subsurface ocean nearly 20 miles (30 kilometers) beneath Europa’s thick icy shell,” said author Ujjwal Raut, a program manager at the Southwest Research Institute. “This region of fractured surface materials could point to geologic processes pushing subsurface materials up from below.”The Europa Clipper's MissionAlthough Europa and its subsurface ocean will be a crucial target for future space exploration, some scientists have expressed doubts regarding its capacity to sustain life. A series of obstacles could make finding life on Europa more difficult. At an American Geophysical Union conference last year, scientists reported that the ice layer covering the moon's surface is thicker than expected, indicating that there may not be enough heat or activity in the subsurface ocean to support life. Scientists aren’t yet sure if an abundance of hydrothermal vents or seafloor volcanoes sit at the bottom of the ocean — these features have been crucial in driving life on our own planet. Observations of Europa haven’t fully confirmed the existence of plumes, either, which would be a clear sign that material from the ocean could be transported to the surface. About 5 years from now, in 2030, scientists will get an unprecedented view of Europa as NASA's Europa Clipper approaches the icy moon. Launched last October, the Europa Clipper will reveal many secrets that still surround the moon's surface and the ocean below. Among its various objectives, the mission will look for plumes, which would be able to eject microbes — if they truly do exist on the moon — into space for the Europa Clipper to examine. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:The Planetary Science Journal. JWST Reveals Spectral Tracers of Recent Surface Modification on EuropaThe Planetary Society. Europa, Jupiter’s possible watery moonThe Planetary Society. Could Europa Clipper find life?Jack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.

smelly shield Penguin poop may help preserve Antarctic climate Ammonia aerosols from penguin guano likely play a part in the formation of heat-shielding clouds. Bob Berwyn, Inside Climate News – May 24, 2025 7:07 am | 4 Credit: Getty Credit: Getty Story text Size Small Standard Large Width * Standard Wide Links Standard Orange * Subscribers only   Learn more This article originally appeared on Inside Climate News, a nonprofit, non-partisan news organization that covers climate, energy, and the environment. Sign up for their newsletter here. New research shows that penguin guano in Antarctica is an important source of ammonia aerosol particles that help drive the formation and persistence of low clouds, which cool the climate by reflecting some incoming sunlight back to space. The findings reinforce the growing awareness that Earth’s intricate web of life plays a significant role in shaping the planetary climate. Even at the small levels measured, the ammonia particles from the guano interact with sulfur-based aerosols from ocean algae to start a chemical chain reaction that forms billions of tiny particles that serve as nuclei for water vapor droplets. The low marine clouds that often cover big tracts of the Southern Ocean around Antarctica are a wild card in the climate system because scientists don’t fully understand how they will react to human-caused heating of the atmosphere and oceans. One recent study suggested that the big increase in the annual global temperature during 2023 and 2024 that has continued into this year was caused in part by a reduction of that cloud cover. “I’m constantly surprised at the depth of how one small change affects everything else,” said Matthew Boyer, a coauthor of the new study and an atmospheric scientist at the University of Helsinki’s Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research. “This really does show that there is a deep connection between ecosystem processes and the climate. And really, it’s the synergy between what’s coming from the oceans, from the sulfur-producing species, and then the ammonia coming from the penguins.” Climate survivors Aquatic penguins evolved from flying birds about 60 million years ago, shortly after the age of dinosaurs, and have persisted through multiple, slow, natural cycles of ice ages and warmer interglacial eras, surviving climate extremes by migrating to and from pockets of suitable habitat, called climate refugia, said Rose Foster-Dyer, a marine and polar ecologist with the University of Canterbury in New Zealand. A 2018 study that analyzed the remains of an ancient “super colony” of the birds suggests there may have been a “penguin optimum” climate window between about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago, at least for some species in some parts of Antarctica, she said. Various penguin species have adapted to different habitat niches and this will face different impacts caused by human-caused warming, she said. Foster-Dyer has recently done penguin research around the Ross Sea, and said that climate change could open more areas for land-breeding Adélie penguins, which don’t breed on ice like some other species. “There’s evidence that this whole area used to have many more colonies … which could possibly be repopulated in the future,” she said. She is also more optimistic than some scientists about the future for emperor penguins, the largest species of the group, she added. “They breed on fast ice, and there’s a lot of publications coming out about how the populations might be declining and their habitat is hugely threatened,” she said. “But they’ve lived through so many different cycles of the climate, so I think they’re more adaptable than people currently give them credit for.” In total, about 20 million breeding pairs of penguins nest in vast colonies all around the frozen continent. Some of the largest colonies, with up to 1 million breeding pairs, can cover several square miles.There aren’t any solid estimates for the total amount of guano produced by the flightless birds annually, but some studies have found that individual colonies can produce several hundred tons. Several new penguin colonies were discovered recently when their droppings were spotted in detailed satellite images. A few penguin colonies have grown recently while others appear to be shrinking, but in general, their habitat is considered threatened by warming and changing ice conditions, which affects their food supplies. The speed of human-caused warming, for which there is no precedent in paleoclimate records, may exacerbate the threat to penguins, which evolve slowly compared to many other species, Foster-Dyer said. “Everything’s changing at such a fast rate, it’s really hard to say much about anything,” she said. Recent research has shown how other types of marine life are also important to the global climate system. Nutrients from bird droppings help fertilize blooms of oxygen-producing plankton, and huge swarms of fish that live in the middle layers of the ocean cycle carbon vertically through the water, ultimately depositing it in a generally stable sediment layer on the seafloor. Tricky measurements Boyer said the new research started as a follow-up project to other studies of atmospheric chemistry in the same area, near the Argentine Marambio Base on an island along the Antarctic Peninsula. Observations by other teams suggested it could be worth specifically trying to look at ammonia, he said. Boyer and the other scientists set up specialized equipment to measure the concentration of ammonia in the air from January to March 2023. They found that, when the wind blew from the direction of a colony of about 60,000 Adélie penguins about 5 miles away, the ammonia concentration increased to as high as 13.5 parts per billion—more than 1,000 times higher than the background reading. Even after the penguins migrated from the area toward the end of February, the ammonia concentration was still more than 100 times as high as the background level. “We have one instrument that we use in the study to give us the chemistry of gases as they’re actually clustering together,” he said. “In general, ammonia in the atmosphere is not well-measured because it’s really difficult to measure, especially if you want to measure at a very high sensitivity, if you have low concentrations like in Antarctica,” he said. Penguin-scented winds The goal was to determine where the ammonia is coming from, including testing a previous hypothesis that the ocean surface could be the source, he said. But the size of the penguin colonies made them the most likely source. “It’s well known that sea birds give off ammonia. You can smell them. The birds stink,” he said. “But we didn’t know how much there was. So what we did with this study was to quantify ammonia and to quantify its impact on the cloud formation process.” The scientists had to wait until the wind blew from the penguin colony toward the research station. “If we’re lucky, the wind blows from that direction and not from the direction of the power generator,” he said. “And we were lucky enough that we had one specific event where the winds from the penguin colony persisted long enough that we were actually able to track the growth of the particles. You could be there for a year, and it might not happen.” The ammonia from the guano does not form the particles but supercharges the process that does, Boyer said. “It’s really the dimethyl sulfide from phytoplankton that gives off the sulfur,” he said. “The ammonia enhances the formation rate of particles. Without ammonia, sulfuric acid can form new particles, but with ammonia, it’s 1,000 times faster, and sometimes even more, so we’re talking up to four orders of magnitude faster because of the guano.” This is important in Antarctica specifically because there are not many other sources of particles, such as pollution or emissions from trees, he added. “So the strength of the source matters in terms of its climate effect over time,” he said. “And if the source changes, it’s going to change the climate effect.” It will take more research to determine if penguin guano has a net cooling effect on the climate. But in general, he said, if the particles transport out to sea and contribute to cloud formation, they will have a cooling effect. “What’s also interesting,” he said, “is if the clouds are over ice surfaces, it could actually lead to warming because the clouds are less reflective than the ice beneath.” In that case, the clouds could actually reduce the amount of heat that brighter ice would otherwise reflect away from the planet. The study did not try to measure that effect, but it could be an important subject for future research, he added. The guano effect lingers even after the birds leave the breeding areas. A month after they were gone, Boyer said ammonia levels in the air were still 1,000 times higher than the baseline. “The emission of ammonia is a temperature-dependent process, so it’s likely that once wintertime comes, the ammonia gets frozen in,” he said. “But even before the penguins come back, I would hypothesize that as the temperature warms, the guano starts to emit ammonia again. And the penguins move all around the coast, so it’s possible they’re just fertilizing an entire coast with ammonia.” Bob Berwyn, Inside Climate News 4 Comments

This Deposit of ‘Weird’ Cretaceous Amber Could Reveal Hints to Long-Forgotten Tsunamis in Japan A new study highlights the potential of amber fossils to capture evidence of powerful, prehistoric ocean waves A tsunami might have occured some 115 million years ago, near where deposits of Cretaceous amber were found in Japan. Wikimedia Commons under CC0 1.0 Scientists in Japan have uncovered amber deposits that may hold elusive evidence of tsunamis that occurred between 114 million and 116 million years ago. Their findings were published in the journal Scientific Reports last week. The researchers stumbled upon the amber—fossilized tree resin—by chance while collecting rocks from a sand mine in Hokkaido, an island in northern Japan. The deposit would have been on the seafloor when it was formed during the Cretaceous period. “We found a weird form of amber,” says lead author Aya Kubota, a geologist at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology in Japan, to Katherine Kornei at Science News. The scientists analyzed the resin with a technique called fluorescence imaging, in which they snapped photos of the remains under ultraviolet light. This helped them see how the amber was separated by layers of dark sediment, creating shapes known as “flame structures.” The unusual pattern arises when soft amber deforms before completely hardening. “Generally, they will form when a denser layer gets deposited on top of a softer layer,” says Carrie Garrison-Laney, a geologist at Washington Sea Grant who was not involved in the study, to Science News. The researchers suggest this is evidence that the resin rapidly traveled from land while it was still malleable and solidified underwater. A tsunami could be what swept the trees from land to the ocean so quickly, the study authors write. If true, this could offer scientists a potential new technique for finding prehistoric tsunamis. “Identifying tsunamis is generally challenging,” Kubota explains to Live Science’s Olivia Ferrari in an email. Tsunami deposits are easily eroded by the environment, and they can also be hard to distinguish from deposits caused by other storms. But in this case, “by combining detailed field observations with the internal structures of amber, we were able to conclude that the most plausible cause was tsunamis.” Cretaceous amber deposits (a, b, d, e) and fossilized driftwood (c) examined in the study Kubota, Aya et al., Scientific Reports, 2025, under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 Other evidence also bolsters the researchers’ conclusion: A massive, nearby landslide offers a sign that an earthquake may have occurred around the same time the amber formed, and displaced mud and tree trunks were found in the same sediments—all signs of a violent tsunami. The trunks didn’t show any signs of erosion by shallow water-dwelling marine creatures, suggesting they were carried quickly out to sea. The vegetation found in the fossil deposit suggests multiple tsunamis occurred within the span of two million years, reports Hannah Richter for Science. But Garrison-Laney tells Science News that more evidence is needed to prove the amber is linked to a tsunami. She’s not sure the Cretaceous tree resin would have stayed soft once it hit the cold ocean water. “That seems like a stretch to me,” she tells the publication, adding that research on more of the area’s amber deposit will be needed to confirm the findings. With further study, scientists could use amber-rich sediments as a way to identify tsunamis throughout history. “Resin offers a rare, time-sensitive snapshot of depositional processes,” Kubota tells Live Science. Previously, scientists have found tiny crustaceans, prehistoric mollusks and even hell ants encased in the orangey resin, a window into worlds past. Now, “the emerging concept of ‘amber sedimentology’ holds exciting potential to provide unique insights into sedimentological processes,” Kubota adds to Live Science. Get the latest stories in your inbox every weekday. More about: Fossils Japan New Research Oceans Tsunami

A New, Shape-Shifting ‘Flapjack’ Octopus Has Been Discovered in the Deep Sea Off the Coast of Australia The tiny Carnarvon flapjack octopus is the latest of ten species described by Australian scientists after a 2022 research trip The newly described octopus, Opisthoteuthis carnarvonensis, has red tentacles. Cindy Bessey / CSIRO A new species of shape-shifting octopus has just been described by scientists in Australia. The tiny cephalopod grows only about 1.6 inches across, but it can survive more than half a mile beneath the ocean’s surface. Scientists have named the octopus the Carnarvon flapjack (Opisthoteuthis carnarvonensis), after the Carnarvon Canyon Marine Park off the coast of Western Australia, where it was found back in 2022. The “flapjack” part of its name comes from its shape-shifting nature—flapjack octopuses can flatten their bodies into pancake-like discs. The octopus marks the tenth new species to be described from specimens collected by researchers aboard the Investigator, a vessel led by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia’s national scientific research agency. The ship has been charting Australia’s waters for years, mapping the seafloor and studying marine life. During the 2022 expedition, the team used high-tech cameras, nets and sleds to collect samples and snap photographs deep below the ocean’s surface. Many of the specimens they found are thought to be new species, according to a statement from CSIRO. Tristan Verhoeff, a volunteer systematic taxonomist at the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, went through a long, multi-step process to name the new octopus and verify that it had never been seen before. “It is exciting, but at the same time, there is pressure to do it right,” he says to Crystal McKay at theAustralian Broadcasting Corporation. “It is easy to think you have a new species when you don’t. That’s why it takes time, as you need to compare specimens and literature descriptions.” To name the new species, Verhoeff had to collect measurements of the octopus, count its suckers, dissect its organs and take detailed photos, per the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Then, researchers compared that information to records of already identified species. Top view of the new octopus species (Opisthoteuthis carnarvonensis) Cindy Bessey / CSIRO The Carnarvon flapjack is a type of deep-sea dwelling “dumbo” octopus, so nicknamed because the ear-like fins just above their eyes give them a resemblance to the popular Disney elephant. “Dumbo octopus are a rare and unusual species that live on the seafloor,” adds Verhoeff in the statement. “They reproduce and grow slowly, are very soft and gelatinous and, unlike other octopus, they produce no ink and cannot change color.” Some of the Investigator’s other recent discoveries include the painted hornshark, the parallel-spine scorpionfish and an “incredibly rare” blind cusk eel. These creatures all add to scientists’ understanding of seafloor habitats in Western Australia. A researcher holds the painted hornshark, which was discovered on the Investigator's 2022 expedition. Frederique Olivier / CSIRO Scientists discovered the parallel-spine scorpionfish on the 2022 research voyage. Frederique Olivier / CSIRO The findings also “help marine managers, such as Parks Australia, better conserve and protect the incredible diversity of marine life that inhabits Australia’s oceans,” says Venetia Joscelyne, the CSIRO Marine National Facility team leader, to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. “Incredibly, scientists estimate that there are likely more than 1,000 new species waiting to be described from specimens collected on CSIRO RV Investigator voyages over the past ten years,” she adds in the statement. If you want to feel like you’re part of the adventure, you can watch a live stream of the vessel on its journey of discovery. Get the latest stories in your inbox every weekday.

Researchers have recovered Homo erectus bones from the seafloor, which points to an unknown hominin population hunting on land that is now underwater in Southeast Asia.

Get the Popular Science daily newsletter💡 Breakthroughs, discoveries, and DIY tips sent every weekday. A smelly, sometimes toxic “killer belt of seaweed” might put a damper on Floridians’ Memorial Day weekend plans. Sargassum is back just in time for the unofficial start of summer and this year’s influx of the brown algae would be record breaking at 31 million tons.  What is Sargassum? Sargassum is a genus of large brown seaweed. As a seaweed, it is also a type of algae. It floats along the ocean in island-like masses and does not attach to the seafloor the way that kelp does.  According to NOAA, this brown algae is abundant in the world’s oceans. It has many leafy appendages, branches, and its signature berry-like structures. These round “berries” are actually gas-filled structures called pneumatocysts. They are primarily filled with oxygen and add buoyancy to the plant structure and allow it to float on the surface of the water, similar to a life jacket.  Importantly, Sargassum provides food and a floating habitat for several marine species including various fishes, sea turtles, marine birds, crabs, and shrimp. Some animals, like the sargassum fish will spend their whole lives around Sargassum’s gas-filled floats and the seaweed is a nursery area for some commercially important fishes, including mahi mahi, jacks, and amberjacks. Smaller fishes, such as filefishes and triggerfishes, reside in and among brown Sargassum. CREDIT: NOAA/Life on the Edge Exploration. Is it harmful to humans? When Sargassum washes up on shore, it begins to rot. That rotting triggers the production of hydrogen sulfide gas, which smells like rotten eggs. These odors themselves are not harmful to humans when inhaled in well ventilated areas like the beach. But the gases can accumulate enough to cause harm if they are breathed in within enclosed spaces.  “Hydrogen sulfide can irritate the eyes, nose, and throat,” writes Florida’s Department of Health in St. John’s County. “If you have asthma or other breathing illnesses, you will be more sensitive to hydrogen sulfide. You may have trouble breathing after you inhale it.” Coming into contact with the jellyfish or other stinging organisms embedded in the rotting seaweed can cause rashes on the skin. Any workers for volunteers collecting and transporting the seaweed should wear gloves, boots, and gas-filter half masks for protection. 2025’s mega bloom In Florida and the Caribbean, Sargassum season runs from April to August, with June and July as the peak months for setting in along the shoreline. However, the blobs have been spotted along shorelines since March this year. The bloom has already broken its own size record set in June 2022 by 40 percent–and is still growing. The annual bloom now stretches over 5,500 miles of ocean between Africa and the Caribbean and weighs an estimated 31 million tons.  “Sargassum goes from being a very beneficial resource of the North Atlantic to becoming what we refer to as … a harmful algal bloom, when it comes ashore in excessive biomass,” Brian LaPointe, a research professor at Florida Atlantic University’s Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, told CNN. “What we have seen since 2011 are excessive inundation events all around the Caribbean region, the Gulf, as well as the South Florida region.” Why is this year’s bloom so big? Increasing ocean temperatures due to climate change is one of the reasons for such a large bloom. The Atlantic and waters around Florida have seen record-breaking high temperatures in recent years, creating ideal conditions for the seaweed to thrive. The excess nitrogen in the water from the burning of fossil fuels or dust from the Sahara is believed to be one of the forces behind this supercharged bloom. An experimental tracking map from NOAA for May 6 through 12, showing where sargassum is likely to wash ashore in Florida. CREDIT: NOAA Scientists can use satellites to track the seaweed and issue warnings if needed. The CariCOOS Sargassum map shows that the bulk of the bloom is currently east of Puerto Rico, but it has already been spotted along Florida’s Atlantic coast. NOAA encourages anyone who encounters Sargassum on the beach to report it with this form.

Antipatharians, or black corals, are named for their jet-black skeletons, but they can actually be quite colorful. Photo by ROV SuBastian Among Newly Discovered Ocean Species, a Baby Colossal Squid Is Filmed for the First Time May 16, 2025 NatureScience Kate Mothes An archipelago in the South Atlantic known as the South Sandwich Islands is home to some of the most remote landmasses in the world. Uninhabited except for occasional scientific research, their volcanic makeup highlights the geological and ecological diversity of this part of the world, and we still have much to learn. Schmidt Ocean Institute (previously) recently completed a 35-day trek on the Falkor (too) to the remote island chain and discovered new hydrothermal vents, coral gardens, and what researchers suspect to be entirely new species. During this expedition, the team also confirmed the sighting of a juvenile colossal squid, capturing one on film for the first time. “Colossal squid are estimated to grow up to 23 feet in length and can weigh as much as 1,100 pounds, making them the heaviest invertebrate on the planet,” the institute says, noting the significance of the documentation because the animals have only ever been found dead, after they’ve washed ashore or been eaten by predators. “Little is known about the colossal squid’s life cycle, but eventually, they lose the see-through appearance of the juveniles,” says a statement. “Dying adults have previously been filmed by fishermen but have never been seen alive at depth.” This recent expedition forms part of the Nippon Foundation–Nekton Ocean Census program, the largest initiative working to expedite the discovery of ocean life. During the voyage, the team weathered tropical storm-force winds with hurricane-level gusts, 26-foot waves, icebergs, and a subsea earthquake. Ocean Census scientists focused on discovering new species, documenting corals, sponges, sea urchins, snails, sea stars, and benthic ctenophores—commonly called comb jellies or sea gooseberries. The team will announce the exact number of new species later this year after taxonomic experts verify their findings. This is the first confirmed live observation of the colossal squid, Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, in its natural habitat. Photo by ROV SuBastian “The 35 days at sea were an exciting rollercoaster of scientific discovery, the implications of which will be felt for many years to come as discoveries filter into management action,” says Dr. Michelle Taylor, head of science and expedition principal investigator for the Ocean Census. She adds, “This is exactly why the Ocean Census exists—to accelerate our understanding of ocean life before it’s too late.” See more on the Schmidt Ocean Institute’s website. A sea cucumber recorded at 649.45 metres at Saunders East, in waters measuring +0.51°C (about 33°F) A “ping pong” sponge (Chondrocladia sp.) is documented on a seafloor bank west of South Georgia Island This isopod was found during a dive at 470 metres depth at Saunders East, with a water temperature of +0.54°C (about 33°F) A vibrant grouping of coral, documented on Humpback Seamount A nudibranch observed at 268 metres on the eastern side of Montagu Island, where temperatures hovered at +0.35°C (about 32.6°F) A Brisingid — a type of deep-sea starfish — perches on a ledge among many brittle stars (ophiuroids) at a site east of Saunders Island Basket stars, a type of echinoderm, are abundant on seamounts and rocky outcroppings; ROV pilots recorded this observation at 673 meters during a dive on a bank west of South Georgia Island A crustacean from the Antarcturidae family found at 331.61 metres at Saunders East, where the temperature measured +0.5°C (about 33°F), seen here perched on a sea pen Research Vessel Falkor (too) conducts studies off the South Sandwich Islands, including a site close to Montagu Island. The South Sandwich Islands area is extremely active volcanically Previous articleNext article