From August 23rd - September 14th, 2023 (Kodiak, Alaska to Seward, Alaska), NOAA Ocean Exploration conducted Seascape Alaska 5: Gulf of Alaska Remotely Operated Vehicle Exploration and Mapping (EX2306), a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and mapping expedition to the Gulf of Alaska on NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer. Operations during this 23-day expedition included the completion of 19 successful remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives, which were conducted in water depths ranging from 253.1 m to 4261.5 m for approximately 87 hours of bottom time and resulted in the collection of 383 samples. EX2306 also collected more than 28,000 sq. km of seafloor bathymetry and associated water column data using an EM 304 multibeam sonar. These images were captured on dives that were included in the source data for the How Little We’ve Seen: A Visual Coverage Estimate of the Deep Seafloor paper. They are good general reference imagery for the type of deep ocean observations captured by ROVs.(Image Courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsKey Takeaways on Deep Ocean Exploration: We have visually explored less than 0.001 percent of the deep sea floor. To put that in perspective, 66 percent of the planet is deep ocean, and 99.999 percent of that ocean is unknown to us.Like ecosystems on land, the sea has a complex food web. Most of life in the sea depends on detritus, mostly phytoplankton, falling down from the surface, something called “marine snow.”Organisms that live in shallow water absorb carbon dioxide and take that with them when they sink to the bottom, often to be buried in deep-sea sediment. This is known as a carbon sink. It’s important to know the rates at which this happens, because this partially offsets the carbon we’re adding to the atmosphere. It’s been said many times that we know more about the moon than our own ocean. But is it really true that we’ve explored only a tiny portion of the sea?Katy Croff Bell wondered about this, too. Bell is an oceanographer and the founder of the Ocean Discovery League. She knew that Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and others have been operating deep-sea submersibles like Alvin for decades, and there are facilities in 20 or so places around the world doing deep-sea research. But how much of the sea floor have these projects actually explored visually, not just mapped or sampled?Mapping the Deep OceanBell started looking up dive data and doing some math. “I stayed up way too late and came up with a very, very tiny number,” she recalls. She didn’t believe her own results and got everyone she could think of to double-check her math. But the results held. Over the next four years, she and her team compiled a database of dives from organizations and individuals around the world, and the data support her initial estimate. The number is indeed tiny. It turns out that we have visually explored less than 0.001 percent of the deep sea floor. To put that in perspective, 66 percent of the planet is deep ocean, and 99.999 percent of that ocean is unknown to us. Bell and her team published their findings in May 2025 in the journal Science Advances.Why Deep Sea Exploration MattersFrom July 14 - July 25, 2023, NOAA Ocean Exploration and partners conducted the third in a series of Seascape Alaska expeditions on NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer. Over the course of 12 days at sea, the team conducted 6 full remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives, mapped nearly 16,000 square kilometers (6,180 square miles), and collected a variety of biological and geological samples. When combined with numerous biological and geological observations, data from the Seascape Alaska 3: Aleutians Remotely Operated Vehicle Exploration and Mapping expedition will help to establish a baseline assessment of the ocean environment, increase understanding of marine life and habitats to inform management decisions, and increase public awareness of ocean issues. These images were captured on dives that were included in the source data for the How Little We’ve Seen: A Visual Coverage Estimate of the Deep Seafloor paper. They are good general reference imagery for the type of deep ocean observations captured by ROVs. (Image Courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration)About 26 percent of the ocean has been mapped with multi-beam sonar, explains Bell, and that gives us an idea of the shape of the ocean floor. But that’s like looking at a topographical map of an area you’re planning to hike. You know where the hills and valleys are, but you have no idea what kind of plants and animals you’re likely to encounter. If you want to understand the deep ocean, you need to get down there and see what kind of rocks and sediment are there, learn about the corals and sponges and other animals living there, she says. Samples of ocean life are helpful, but they do not give anything like a full picture of the life-forms in the deep sea, and more importantly, they tell you little about the complex ecosystems they’re a part of. But when you put mapping and sampling together with visual data, plus data about temperature, depths, and salinity, Bell says, you start to build a picture of what a given ocean habitat is like, and eventually, the role of that habitat in the global ocean system.The Deep-Sea "Snow" That Provides LifeFrom August 23rd - September 14th, 2023 (Kodiak, Alaska to Seward, Alaska), NOAA Ocean Exploration conducted Seascape Alaska 5: Gulf of Alaska Remotely Operated Vehicle Exploration and Mapping (EX2306), a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and mapping expedition to the Gulf of Alaska on NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer. Operations during this 23-day expedition included the completion of 19 successful remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives, which were conducted in water depths ranging from 253.1 m to 4261.5 m for approximately 87 hours of bottom time and resulted in the collection of 383 samples. EX2306 also collected more than 28,000 sq. km of seafloor bathymetry and associated water column data using an EM 304 multibeam sonar. These images were captured on dives that were included in the source data for the How Little We’ve Seen: A Visual Coverage Estimate of the Deep Seafloor paper. They are good general reference imagery for the type of deep ocean observations captured by ROVs. (Image Courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration)Like ecosystems on land, the sea has a complex food web. Most of life in the sea depends on detritus, mostly phytoplankton, falling down from the surface, something called “marine snow,” explains James Douglass, an ecologist at Florida Gulf Coast University who studies life on the sea bed. This snow of nutrients is eaten by what are called suspension feeders, including filter feeders, such as sponges and corals, which have tentacles or basket-like appendages to trap the snow. Then other organisms, such as crabs and worms, feed on these creatures. The crabs and worms, in turn, are eaten by fish. Deposit feeders, such as the sea pig, a type of sea cucumber that “trundles across the bottom eating mud all day,” add to the already huge variety of life, Douglass says. The types of organisms you have in the deep sea depend on how deep it is, whether the sea floor is rocky or muddy, how quickly currents bring food, and whether there are underwater hot springs or cold seeps, or other sources of extra energy, says Douglass. So yes, it’s a complicated world down there, and there’s an awful lot we don’t yet know.Deep-Sea Ecosystems and Climate Change From July 14 - July 25, 2023, NOAA Ocean Exploration and partners conducted the third in a series of Seascape Alaska expeditions on NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer. Over the course of 12 days at sea, the team conducted 6 full remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives, mapped nearly 16,000 square kilometers (6,180 square miles), and collected a variety of biological and geological samples. When combined with numerous biological and geological observations, data from the Seascape Alaska 3: Aleutians Remotely Operated Vehicle Exploration and Mapping expedition will help to establish a baseline assessment of the ocean environment, increase understanding of marine life and habitats to inform management decisions, and increase public awareness of ocean issues. These images were captured on dives that were included in the source data for the How Little We’ve Seen: A Visual Coverage Estimate of the Deep Seafloor paper. They are good general reference imagery for the type of deep ocean observations captured by ROVs. (Image Courtesy of NOAA Ocean Exploration)Learning about ocean ecosystems is extremely valuable as basic science. But it has a more urgent purpose as well. Though we often think of the land and the sea as two completely separate places, they are intertwined in many significant ways. The ocean has absorbed 90 percent of the excess heat and 30 percent of the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by humans, says Bell. “But we don’t really have a good understanding of how this is going to impact deep-sea ecosystems, and those ecosystems play a vital role in the process of carbon sequestration,” she says.When it comes to climate change, the deep sea has a lot to teach us. In parts of the deep sea, Douglass explains, nothing disturbs the layers of sediment that are deposited slowly over the course of thousands, even millions of years. Geologists can interpret the layers and study the fossils preserved in them to get an understanding of what the conditions of the planet were like in the distant past, similar to the way climatologists study Antarctic ice cores. “We've learned things about how the ocean ecosystem changes when climate changes. We've learned that some worrying things can happen under certain climate conditions in the deep ocean,” Douglass says. “For example, the ocean can become less oxygenated, which would be a catastrophic threat to deep-sea life.”The Deep Ocean and Climate RegulationAnd, of course, there’s carbon dioxide. “The deep sea is not just a passive record of what happened to the climate; it’s involved in regulating climate,” Douglass says. Organisms that live in shallow water absorb carbon dioxide and take that with them when they sink to the bottom, often to be buried in deep-sea sediment. This is known as a carbon sink. Douglass says it’s very important to know the rates at which this happens, because this partially offsets the carbon we’re adding to the atmosphere. “Deep-sea carbon storage is a huge element in our understanding of the planet's ability to regulate climate,” he adds.If we are to truly understand the way the entire planet works, we need to understand the deep sea and its complex ecosystems as well as life on land and in the shallows. And to do that, Bell says, we need to get down there and look.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Science Advances. How little we’ve seen: A visual coverage estimate of the deep seafloorAvery Hurt is a freelance science journalist. In addition to writing for Discover, she writes regularly for a variety of outlets, both print and online, including National Geographic, Science News Explores, Medscape, and WebMD. She’s the author of Bullet With Your Name on It: What You Will Probably Die From and What You Can Do About It, Clerisy Press 2007, as well as several books for young readers. Avery got her start in journalism while attending university, writing for the school newspaper and editing the student non-fiction magazine. Though she writes about all areas of science, she is particularly interested in neuroscience, the science of consciousness, and AI–interests she developed while earning a degree in philosophy.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

Warning: contains spoilers for The Handmaid’s Tale series finale. Finale? More like DVD Extra. The cast of a once-unmissable show reunited one last time for a series of watery-eyed goodbyes and I love yous. 55 minutes of June trundling around a recently liberated Boston remembering things and having feelings? The Handmaid’s Tale hasn’t delivered a more inessential episode since the ‘What Luke Did” flashback in season one. You know what’s to blame: therapy. It’s taught us concepts like ‘processing trauma’ and ‘closure’ – both useful in their context but ruinous when mistaken for storytelling. Real lives may benefit from being lived with wisdom, growth and acceptance, but fictional ones can afford more chaos. Characters don’t all need to bow out of their story with instructive understanding; some should be allowed to kick their way out pulling a grenade pin between their teeth.  The Handmaid’s Tale made its name as protest art with iconic imagery, a killer soundtrack and attitude to spare. It could have sent June thundering into the flames, but instead, she got this weepy valedictory tour.  A beautifully acted weepy valedictory tour, one should say. The cast of The Handmaid’s Tale never let you down, but on rare occasions like this one, they’re let down by writing that cares more about completing its characters’ emotions worksheets than about entertaining an audience. Don’t mistake me, I’m pleased that June had all of those repetitive reunions – with Serena, with Emily, with Luke, with baby Holly, with her mother, with Lydia, with Serena again… I just don’t feel like I needed to witness ‘em. How about some story instead? Why not let us see, say, Hannah in wartime? Why not is because that’s all being saved, along with Aunt Lydia’s next steps, for sequel The Testaments, a continuation that this episode dutifully set up without managing to raise much anticipation for. The series finale wasn’t about looking forward, it was all about looking back. Hence the surprise return of Alexis Bledel’s Emily, who showed up magically at June’s side with a callback to the start of their tentative friendship in season one. Emily was just one of a rollcall of faces from the past. Those also came in the form of cameos from departed friends Alma, Brianna, and Janine’s right eye, as June fantasised about the karaoke night that might have been.  The episode’s closing moments, in which June revisited the Waterford house burnt out by Serena in season three, were another callback. June took up the same window seat position as she had in episode one and delivered the same opening lines to the Margaret Atwood novel that started all this. Except, now those lines were the opening lines to June’s memoir, bringing the show metatextually full circle.  Nothing in the finale mattered so much as its heavily insisted-upon message, which was all about parents fighting to create a better world to keep their children safe. June readied herself to leave little Holly again, bolstered by Emily’s assurance that it didn’t mean she was abandoning her family. Luke planned to reach Hannah by liberating one state from Gilead at a time. Naomi Lawrence returned little Charlotte to her mother to keep her out of a warzone. Even Mark Tuello was conjured up an off-screen son to motivate his military moves. By the time Holly Sr had declaimed over not being able to keep June safe, and Serena had promised to dedicate herself solely to the raising of her precious baby Noah, it was hard not to feel a little Gilead propaganda going on in terms of children being the only reason that anybody does anything. I don’t recall that being the point Margaret Atwood was making back in 1985. Nor was the finale’s ultra-serious, highly emotive tone always the way of things in The Handmaid’s Tale. June’s irreverence, not to mention her excellent way with an expletive, is part of what’s made her an attractive lead character over the years. Next to Gilead’s mannered prayer-card conversational style, she’s been a breath of fresh air. In this finale though, June’s wryness was replaced with her telling Serena to “go in grace” like she was issuing a papal blessing, and telling little Holly all about how much mommies love their babies. Join our mailing list Get the best of Den of Geek delivered right to your inbox! There were flashes of beauty among the sap. The shot of June walking back along the bridge as Boston’s lights turned on was terrific both in idea and execution. Janine getting Charlotte back was a genuine – if unexplored – surprise. “The Wall” being co-opted by revolutionary graffiti and women reclaiming their own names was gorgeous. Overall though, this was a repetitive and surplus hour that used its screentime to remind us of things that didn’t really require a reminder. June misses Hannah. June once loved Nick. Serena feels bad. The children are our future. We know. You already told us.  The Handmaid’s Tale season six is streaming now on Hulu in the US, and airing weekly on Channel 4 in the UK. 

So many unexplored secrets still lie at the outskirts of our solar system, where a potential candidate for a new dwarf planet lies. Although space beyond Neptune was thought to be mostly devoid of large objects, researchers are beginning to rethink this assumption after coming across an extraordinary trans-Neptunian object, called 2017 OF201. According to a recently published arXiv pre-print, 2017 OF201 could soon join the ranks of Pluto and other dwarf planets in the solar system. The behavior of its extremely large orbit has piqued the interest of astronomers, who now believe there may be plenty more objects just like it drifting through this remote part of space. Where are Dwarf Planets Located?Composite image showing the five dwarf planets recognized by the International Astronomical Union, plus the newly discovered trans-Neptunian object 2017 OF201. (Image Courtesy of: NASA/JPL Caltech; Sihao Cheng et al.)The Kuiper Belt, a region of the solar system past Neptune’s orbit, is likely home to hundreds of thousands — if not millions — of icy objects that vary in shape and size. Over 2,000 trans-Neptunian objects (TNO) have been observed here, but scientists believe that this figure doesn’t even scratch the surface of this area’s extraterrestrial riches. The most famous resident of the Kuiper Belt, without a doubt, is Pluto. Other dwarf planets have also been found in the area, such as Eris, Haumea, and Makemake. But why do Pluto and its fellow dwarf planets not enjoy the same status as the solar system’s eight regular planets? To officially be considered a planet, an object must follow three rules set by the International Astronomical Union in 2006: It must orbit a host star (like the Sun), be mostly round, and be large enough to clear away objects of a similar size near its orbit (in other words, it has to be “gravitationally dominant”). Dwarf planets like Pluto follow the first two rules, but they cannot “clear the neighborhood” near their orbits. The Extreme Orbit of 2017 OF201Scientists have been eager to uncover more TNOs in the Kuiper Belt, which is what led to the discovery of 2017 OF201. The object was identified based on bright spots in an astronomical image database from the Victor M. Blanco Telescope and Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope. Assessing exposures over seven years, the researchers were led to 2017 OF201, which is one of the most distant visible objects in our solar system at this point. The most significant aspect of 2017 OF201 appears to be its extreme orbit. “The object’s aphelion — the farthest point on the orbit from the Sun — is more than 1600 times that of the Earth’s orbit,” said author Sihao Cheng of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, NJ, in a press statement. “Meanwhile, its perihelion — the closest point on its orbit to the Sun — is 44.5 times that of the Earth’s orbit, similar to Pluto's orbit.”The researchers estimate the object’s diameter to be 700 km [about 435 miles], “which would make it the second largest known object in a wide orbit," according to the statement. Pluto’s diameter, for reference, is 2,377 km [about 1477 miles]. Mysteries of the Kuiper BeltThe object’s orbit, which takes around 25,000 years to complete, may be the result of an encounter with a larger planet that sent it far into space. The object also doesn’t show signs of clustering in a specific orientation, something commonly observed with other TNOs. Clustering has often been referenced as indirect evidence for the existence of a hypothetical ninth planet in the outer solar system (called Planet Nine or Planet X). But since 2017 OF201 doesn’t follow the same pattern as other TNOs, it may stand against this hypothesis. The researchers hope to gather more details on 2017 OF201 in future observations. The excitement doesn't stop at this object, since its discovery hints at an abundance of similar objects in the Kuiper Belt, still waiting to be observed.“2017 OF201 spends only 1 percent of its orbital time close enough to us to be detectable. The presence of this single object suggests that there could be another hundred or so other objects with similar orbit and size; they are just too far away to be detectable now,” said Cheng in a press release. “Even though advances in telescopes have enabled us to explore distant parts of the universe, there is still a great deal to discover about our own solar system.”Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Earth and Planetary Astrophysics. Discovery of a dwarf planet candidate in an extremely wide orbit: 2017 OF201NASA. Kuiper Belt FactsNASA. Dwarf PlanetsJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.

As we reflect on the past year, we can’t help but be proud of all that the Unity community accomplished. From award-winning masterpieces and cult hits to the pure, unadulterated joy that Trombone Champ has brought to all of our lives. Case in point…Before we move into a new year, full of new possibilities, let’s take a moment to celebrate some of your biggest achievements from the past 12 months. Thank you for being part of our story; here’s to an even better 2023!To the best of our abilities, here’s a non-exhaustive list of Made with Unity games that you released in 2022, either into early access or full release. There have been so many great titles this year, so we’ve categorized them by genre to make this list a bit more digestible and hopefully inspire some of your future projects – though, of course, some titles defy easy genre categorization (*cough* Cult of the Lamb *cough*).See any on the list that have already become favorites or know of any that we missed? Tell us about it in the forums.Rollerdrome, Roll7 (August 16)Other action titles we love include:Sanabi, WONDER POTION (June 20) [Early Access]Cuphead: The Delicious Last Course, Studio MDHR Entertainment Inc. (June 30)Midnight Fight Express, Jacob Dzwinel (August 23)Warhammer 40,000: Shootas, Blood & Teef, Rogueside (October 20)Outshine, Fishing Cactus (November 3)SIGNALIS, rose-engine (October 27)Other horror titles we love include:The Mortuary Assistant, DarkStone Digital (August 2)Hell is Others, Strelka Games, Yonder (October 20)Bendy and the Dark Revival, Joey Drew Studios (November 15)TUNIC, TUNIC team (March 16)Other puzzle adventure titles we love include:FAR: Changing Tides, Okomotive (March 1)Syberia: The World Before, Microids Studio Paris (March 18)Lost in Play, Happy Juice Games (August 10)The Spirit and the Mouse, Albune Games (September 26)LEGO® Bricktales, ClockStone (October 12)The Past Within, Rusty Lake (November 2)How to Say Goodbye, Florian Veltman, Baptiste Portefaix, and ARTE France (November 3)Somerville, Jumpship (November 14)Ghost Song, Old Moon (November 3)Other metroidvania titles we love include:Infernax, Berzerk Studio (February 14)Haiku, the Robot, Mister Morris Games (April 28)HAAK, Blingame (August 24)Moonscars, Black Mermaid (September 27)Neon White, Angel Matrix (June 16)Other FPS titles we love include:Gloomwood, Dillon Rogers and David Szymanski (September 5) [Early Access]Isonzo, M2H and, Blackmill Games (September 13)Metal: Hellsinger, The Outsiders (September 15)Prodeus, Bounding Box Software Inc. (September 23)BONELAB, Stress Level Zero (September 29)CULTIC, Jasozz Games (October 13)Cult of the Lamb, Massive Monster (August 11)Other roguelike titles we love include:Have a Nice Death, Magic Design Studios (March 8) [Early Access]Across the Obelisk, Dreamsite Games (April 8) [Early Access]Rogue Legacy 2, Cellar Door Games (April 28)20 Minutes Till Dawn, flanne (June 8) [Early Access]Necrosmith, Alawar Premium (July 13)ORX, johnbell (August 30)Alina of the Arena, PINIX (October 13)I See Red, Whiteboard Games (October 24)Ship of Fools, Fika Productions (November 22)IMMORTALITY, Sam Barlow, Half Mermaid (August 30)Other narrative-focused titles we love include:NORCO, Geography of Robots (March 24)A Memoir Blue, Cloisters Interactive (March 24)As Dusk Falls, INTERIOR/NIGHT (July 19)Hindsight, Team Hindsight (August 4)Gerda: A Flame in Winter, PortaPlay (September 1)Beacon Pines, Hiding Spot (September 22)Pentiment, Obsidian Entertainment (November 15)Dortformantik, Toukana Interactive (April 28)Other city builder and strategy titles we love include:Diplomacy is Not an Option, Door 407 (February 9) [Early Access]Farthest Frontier, Crate Entertainment (August 9) [Early Access]The Wandering Village, Stray Fawn Studio (September 14) [Early Access]Terra Invicta, Pavonis Interactive (September 26) [Early Access]Moonbreaker, Unknown Worlds Entertainment (September 29) [Early Access]Stardeus, Kodo Linija, (October 12) [Early Access]Against the Storm, Eremite Games (November 1) [Early Access]IXION, Bulwark Studios (December 7)Citizen Sleeper, Jump Over The Age (May 2)Other RPG titles we love include:Unexplored 2: The Wayfarer’s Legacy, Ludomotion (May 27)Dungeon Munchies, maJAja (July 27)Backpack Hero, Jaspel (August 22) [Early Access]I Was a Teenage Exocolonist, Northway Games (August 25)Temtem, Crema (September 6)Lost Eidolons, Ocean Drive Studio (September 13)Gedonia, Kazakov Oleg (October 14)Chained Echoes,Matthias Linda (December 8)V Rising, Stunlock Studios (May 17)[Early Access]Other survival titles we love include:Arctico, Claudio Norori, Antonio Vargas (February 15)Core Keeper, Pugstorm (March 8)[Early Access]The Planet Crafter, Miju Games (May 24)Raft: The Final Chapter,Redbeet Interactive (June 20)Flat Eye, Monkey Moon (November 14)Other management titles we love include:Bear and Breakfast, Gummy Cat (July 28)PlateUp!, It’s happening (August 4)Two Point Campus, Two Point Studios (August 9)Arcade Paradise, Nosebleed Interactive (August 11)Dave the Diver, MINTROCKET (October 27) [Early Access]Aka, Cosmo Gatto (December 14)Other simulation titles we love include:Hardspace: Shipbreaker, Blackbird Interactive (May 24)Dinkum, James Bendon (July 14) [Early Access]PowerWash Simulator, FuturLab (July 14)CTRL ALT EGO, MindThunk (July 22)Disney Dreamlight Valley, Gameloft (September 6)Construction Simulator, weltenbauer. Software Entwicklung GmbH (September 20)Slime Rancher 2, Monomi Park (September 22) [Early Access]Turbo Golf Racing, Hugecalf Studios (August 4) [Early Access]Other sports or driving titles we love include:Olli Olli World, Roll7 (February 7)Shredders, FoamPunch (March 16)Blacktop Hoops, Vinci Games (April 19)[Early Access]Hot Lap League: Deluxe Edition, Ultimate Studio (August 23)You Suck at Parking, Happy Volcano (September 14)Trombone Champ, Holy Wow (September 15)Other funny titles we love include:Tentacular, Firepunchd Games UG (March 24)The Stanley Parable: Ultra Deluxe, Crows Crows Crows (April 27)Cosmonious High, Owlchemy Labs (May 31)The Looker, Subcreation Studio (July 17)The Last Hero of Nostalgaia, Over The Moon (October 19)MARVEL SNAP, Second Dinner (October 18)Other card titles we love include:Stacklands, Sokpop Collective (April 8)Card Shark, Nerial (June 2)Card Crawl Adventure, Tinytouchtales (August 3)That’s a wrap for 2022! Want more community news as it happens? Don’t forget to follow us on social media: Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, Instagram, YouTube, or Twitch.

May 15, 20253 min readNewly Discovered Fossil Tracks May Rewrite Early History of ReptilesFossilized claw tracks discovered in Australia show that the animal group that includes reptiles, mammals and birds formed earlier than expectedBy Rita Aksenfeld & Nature magazine Illustration of an amniote animal thought to have left fossilized claw prints in Victoria, Australia. Marcin AmbrozikFossil claw prints found in Australia were probably made by the earliest known members of the group that includes reptiles, birds and mammals, according to a study published in Nature today. The findings suggest that this group — the amniotes — originated at least 35 million years earlier than previously thought.Early amniotes evolved to lay eggs on land, because they were encased in an amniotic membrane that stopped them drying out. Before this study, the earliest known amniote fossils had been found in Nova Scotia, Canada, and were dated to the mid-Carboniferous period, about 319 million years ago. The latest findings suggest that amniotes also existed in the early Carboniferous period, around 355 million years ago.“This discovery is exciting, and if the tracks have been interpreted the right way, the findings have important implications for our understanding of tetrapod evolution,” says Steven Salisbury, a palaeontologist at the University of Queensland in Brisbane, Australia.On supporting science journalismIf you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing. By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.The tracksThe claw tracks were found in a sandstone block on the bank of the Broken River at Barjarg in the state of Victoria, by two co-authors of the paper who are not professional scientists. This area of the river is known as Berrepit to the Indigenous Taungurung people who own the land.The sandstone block is part of a larger structure that had already been dated to the early Carboniferous on the basis of radiometric and tectonic evidence. Fossilized tracks of aquatic invertebrates and fish found in the same layer were also dated to this time period.The Snowy Plains Formation trackway slab with footprints and trackways highlighted. Manus (front foot) prints are shown in yellow; pes (hind foot) prints are shown in blue.Grzegorz NiedzwiedzkiThe three sets of tracks in the study have clear footprints with indentations from claws, a feature of reptiles but not of amphibians. “Having these hooked claws on the trackways indicates they’re definitely a reptile-like animal,” says John Long, a palaeontologist at Flinders University in Adelaide, Australia.There are no marks of dragging bellies or tails, and the authors suggest that the amniotes that left the tracks were able to keep their bodies and tails off the ground while they walked on land. But Salisbury questions that interpretation, because it would mean the animals had developed sophisticated structures for complex locomotion, which would be surprising given how early they are. “It seems more likely that the tracks were made by an animal that was ‘punting’ in shallow water, rather than walking on land,” he says.Common ancestorUntil now, evidence suggested that the last common ancestor of modern amphibians and amniotes lived around 352 million years ago. But if the ancestors of reptiles existed during the early Carboniferous, their split from amphibians must have occurred even earlier, says Long. Dating by the team suggests that the groups diverged in the Devonian period, about 380 million years ago.To estimate the probable time of divergence, Long and his colleagues used several dating methods. One included geological evidence from radioactive decay in volcanic rock layers above and below the fossil tracks. They also used molecular phylogenetics, which compares similarities and differences in the DNA of living species to estimate their evolutionary relationships and how recently their last common ancestor lived.The discovery could also shift the origin of amniotes to the Gondwana landmass. This formed the southern portion of the Pangaea supercontinent and gave rise to multiple current landmasses, including Africa and Australia. Previously, the earliest known amniotes were found in North America, leading palaeontologists to think that the group originated in the Northern Hemisphere. But more evidence from Australian fossils is needed before definitively shifting their origin site, says Long. “Australia is a vast area with fewer palaeontologists on the ground,” Long says. “We’ve got a lot more unexplored fossil sites where new things like this keep turning up.”This article is reproduced with permission and was first published on May 14, 2025.