Archaeologists have dug up a collection of mass-produced bone tools, the earliest ever discovered, suggesting that hominins systematically made tools out of bone around 1 million years earlier than previously thought. Described in a Nature study, the collection contains 27 fossilized tools that were fashioned around 1.5 million years ago. According to the archaeologists, this tool factory indicates that hominins exhibited advanced abstract thought early on in their history.The tools show evidence that their creators carefully worked the bones, chipping off flakes to create useful shapes, said Renata F. Peters, an archaeologist at University College London who was involved in the discovery, according to a press release. We were excited to find these bone tools from such an early timeframe. It means that human ancestors were capable of transferring skills from stone to bone, a level of complex cognition that we havent seen elsewhere for another million years.Pushing Back the Mass Production of Bone ToolsHominins, the taxonomic tribe that includes humans and human ancestors who walked upright, have been making tools out of stone for several million years. But their techniques havent stayed the same throughout that time. While hominins used simple methods to chip a few flakes off of stones at the start of the Oldowan age, around 2.7 million years ago, they used complex methods to chip many flakes off of stones at the beginning of the Acheulean age, around 1.7 million years ago.This more complex method of toolmaking from the start of the Acheulean, known as knapping, allowed hominins to mass-produce sharp, standardized tools from stone. But, apparently, it also allowed them to mass-produce sharp, standardized tools from bone, too. Unearthing a set of 27 bone tools at the important archaeological site of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, archaeologists have shown that the Acheuleans more complex methods were used to mass-produce bone tools around 1.5 million years ago approximately 1 million years earlier than previously thought. Indeed, bone tools are relatively rare and isolated in the archaeological record until around 500,000 years ago, when the systematic production of these tools was previously thought to start. This discovery leads us to assume that early humans significantly expanded their technological options, which until then were limited to the production of stone tools and now allowed new raw materials to be incorporated into the repertoire of potential artifacts, said Ignacio de la Torre, another paper author and an archaeologist at the Instituto de Historia of the CSIC-Spanish National Research Council, according to the release. Handy HomininsFashioned from the limb bones of large mammals, mainly elephants and hippos, the tools were strong and sturdy possibly suited for the processing of animal carcasses into food. According to the archaeologists, the transition from stone to bone was a feat of abstract thinking, requiring an aptitude in toolmaking and an appreciation that the knapping techniques that worked on one material would also work on another.This expansion of technological potential indicates advances in the cognitive abilities and mental structures of these hominins, who knew how to incorporate technical innovations by adapting their knowledge of stone work to the manipulation of bone remains, said de la Torre, according to the release.Though it isnt clear which hominin created the tools, as hominin remains weren't found nearby, at least two species of human ancestor inhabited the region around 1.5 million years ago, including one species of Australopithecus and one species of Homo, the latter being Homo erectus. Whoever the toolmakers were, however, the archaeologists say that the hominin inhabitants of the area were a bit handier a bit earlier than previously believed, at least when it came to bone tools. Read More: Stone Age Humans Chose Their Rocks with CareArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Sam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.

By the time we notice signs of cognitive decline due to aging, its often too late to effectively treat it. But taking a look at the brain during the critical window between the ages of 40 and 59 could provide a chance to prevent or slow conditions like Alzheimers disease, according to a study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.The study suggests that patients in that window undergo functional MRI (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG). Those imaging tests can reveal biomarkers associated with cognitive decline while still providing enough time for effective treatment.An Insight into NeurodegenerationAnticipating the brains decline is tricky since it appears to follow an s-shaped curve rather than a straight line over time. In the study, an international team of neuroscientists detail that curve and identify critical points. They used neuroimaging techniques on more than 19,300 people to define those points.The study shows that the first signs of decline emerge at around age 44, with neurodegeneration hitting peak acceleration at age 67, then plateauing at age 90.Understanding exactly when and how brain aging accelerates gives us strategic time points for intervention, Lilianne R. Mujica-Parodi, a State University of New York, Stony Brook neuroscientist and author of the study, said in a press release. Weve identified a critical midlife window where the brain begins to experience declining access to energy but before irreversible damage occurs, essentially the bend before the break.Identifying Neuronal StressThe researchers have also identified a mechanism: neuronal stress due to not enough fuel. This stress happens to neurons in midlife. Theyre struggling, but theyre still viable, Parodi said. Therefore, providing an alternative fuel during this critical window can help restore function.Besides mapping the brains aging trajectory, the researchers also identified neuronal insulin resistance as one of its key drivers. They saw changes in genes that play a role in metabolism precede shifts in vascular and inflammatory indicators.Food for ThoughtsThe good news? That gap between changes in brain metabolism and those more permanent shifts that could physically impair the brain represents an opportunity for treatment. They also identified an alternative food for neurons that could stave off impairment.They used that food, something called a ketone transporter, in 101 study participants on different points of the brain aging curve. The effects were striking, with the treatment most benefiting participants in the 40-59-year-old group.Rather than waiting to slide down the cognitive decline curve, people might consider tinkering with their metabolism to stave off their brains aging process or consider other strategies to combat cognitive decline. Ketogenic diets or supplements might offer one path forward. If theyre not sure of the state of their mind, they might consider checking their head via brain imaging.Read More: Combat Cognitive Decline With These 5 ActivitiesArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Brain aging shows nonlinear transitions, suggesting a midlife critical window for metabolic interventionBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Tens of thousands of cuneiform tablets are sitting around, just waiting to be translated. Its not an easy job; the ancient language is based on wedge-shaped pictograms and includes more than 1,000 unique characters that vary by era, geography, and individual writer.But decoding the pictograms could be a culturally and historically significant task. Cuneiform arose about 5,000 years ago in Mesopotamia, in what is now Iraq. It is one of four known pristine languages writing systems with no known influences from any other. Some translated cuneiform tablets have revealed contents as banal as a record of inventory for shipping. Others have been more profound like the Epic of Gilgamesh," the first known written work of literature.Those translations, done by a relatively few individuals who know the language, required a lot of labor and perhaps some guesswork. Decoding such complexity would be the perfect job for artificial intelligence, thought some Cornell University researchers, who, with colleagues at Tel Aviv University, created a system to do just that, they report in a paper to be presented at an April 2025 conference.AI Deciphers Ancient TabletsThe research team developed a system that overcomes the many obstacles that variations present to translation. When you go back to the ancient world, theres a huge variability in the character forms, Hadar Averbuch-Elor, a Cornell computer science professor who led the research, said in a press release. Even with the same character, the appearance changes across time, and so its a very challenging problem to be able to automatically decipher what the character actually means.The computer system reads photographs of clay cuneiform tablets, then adjusts by computationally overlaying the images atop ones with similar features, and whose meaning is known. Because the system automatically aligns the two images until they digitally click into place, they named the system ProtoSnap.What We Can Learn From Ancient TextsIn the paper, the researchers demonstrated that the snapped characters can be used to train the system to see other similarities between other characters later in the process, what they call downstream. When the system received such training, ProtoSnap performed much better at recognizing cuneiform characters even rare ones or characters with lots of differences than previous AI efforts.This advance could help automate the tablet-reading process. This would save an enormous amount of time. It could also help scholars better compare writings from different times, cities, and authors. But most importantly, it would dramatically hasten the translation process ultimately giving the world access to an abundance of ancient writing.The base of our research is the aim to increase the ancient sources available to us by tenfold, Yoram Cohen, a co-author and archaeology professor at TAU said in the press release. This will allow us, for the first time, the manipulation of big data, leading to new measurable insights about ancient societies their religion, economy, social and legal life.Although many translated tablets will likely just show, say, a receipt for a livestock purchase, others could contain fascinating historical accounts or even another epic poem.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Cornell University and Tel Aviv University. ProtoSnap: Prototype Alignment for Cuneiform SignsBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Earthquakes and secondary disasters like landslides and tsunamis can devastate regions, leaving lasting impacts for years. Beyond the immediate harm to individuals and infrastructure, these events disrupt essential services, alter landscapes, and place a significant economic burden on affected areas.Major earthquakes in the last two decades, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the 2011 Japan earthquake, and the 2023 Turkey - Syria earthquake, have highlighted the urgent need for better forecasting methods. More accurate predictions could help authorities prepare affected regions and implement timely evacuation plans.A recent study from the University of Tsukuba and the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology in Japan, published in Chaos, examined the suns impact on seismic activity. The researchers suggest incorporating solar heat data into earthquake forecasting models could enhance prediction accuracy.How Earthquake Forecasting WorksAt present, the precise timing and location of earthquakes cannot be predicted. However, seismologists, scientists who study seismic waves and earthquakes, can estimate the likelihood of an earthquake occurring in a given area based on various factors.Typically, experts assess the historical frequency of seismic activity, analyze geological records for evidence of past ruptures, examine the relationship between smaller and larger earthquakes, and study aftershock patterns. The more data available, the better the forecasts.Read More: Chasing the Dream of Earthquake PredictionUnderstanding the Cause of EarthquakesBy studying past events, scientists understand that earthquakes occur when tectonic plates shift, causing strain energy to accumulate. Eventually, this energy is released in the form of seismic activity. However, forecasting earthquakes remains a complex challenge, as many contributing factors are still not fully understood.To refine their models, researchers have begun exploring external influences on seismic activity. Some studies suggest that tidal forces and electromagnetic effects from celestial bodies, such as the moon and the sun, may play a role.Previously, the Tsukuba research team identified a correlation between sunspot numbers and seismic activity on Earth. However, the underlying mechanism driving this connection remained unclear. Their latest hypothesis suggests that the Suns heat may be a key factor.The Role of Solar Heat in EarthquakesBy applying mathematical models and computational techniques, the researchers compared earthquake occurrences with solar activity and temperature variations on Earth's surface. Their analysis showed that factoring in temperature shifts improved the accuracy of earthquake forecasts, particularly for shallow seismic events.Solar heat drives atmospheric temperature changes, which in turn can affect factors like rock properties and underground water movement, explained study author Matheus Henrique Junqueira Saldanha in a press release. Such fluctuations can make rocks more brittle and prone to fracturing, for example and changes in rainfall and snowmelt can alter the pressure on tectonic plate boundaries. While these factors may not be the main drivers of earthquakes, they could still be playing a role that can help to predict seismic activity. The findings indicate that while solar heat transfer to Earths surface does influence seismic activity, its impact remains relatively small. However, incorporating solar activity predictions into detailed Earth temperature models could still provide valuable insights for earthquake forecasting.Its an exciting direction, and we hope our study sheds some light on the bigger picture of what triggers earthquakes, said Junqueira Saldanha in the release.This research represents a promising step toward better earthquake predictions. While more studies are needed to confirm the extent of solar heats influence, integrating this factor into existing models could improve our ability to anticipate seismic events and mitigate their impact.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:California Institute of Technology. Can Seismologists Predict Earthquakes?Having worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When shes not immersed in a popular science book, youll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.

Not that long ago, the idea of a robot performing surgery on a human was something out of science fiction. Today, its routine. Robotic surgery increased from 1.8 percent to 15 percent of all surgeries from 2012 to 2018, according to the American College of Surgeons.Today, its used for around 22 percent of surgeries, according to several estimates. And no wonder the method is catching on. Robotic surgery (more accurately described as robotic-assisted surgery) offers less bleeding, less time in the hospital, and faster recovery time with less pain.Easier and Less Painful Surgeries The robot in robotic surgery is actually a very sophisticated machine operated by a highly trained and experienced surgeon. Typically, the surgeon sits at a console and remotely operates robotic arms that hold tiny surgical instruments (yes, the console does look something like a video game controller).One of the arms holds a camera that gives the surgeon a high-definition, magnified view of the surgical site. Though the surgeon is sitting at a console rather than hunched over the incision, they have a much better view of the surgical field. Using robotics allows surgeons to comfortably maneuver in places that are otherwise quite restrictive, including the pelvis or the left atrium, where the mitral valve is located and where Sloane Guy often works.I can drive my camera right into the heart and see exactly where I'm cutting, whereas in an open surgery, I've got to look through a tiny little hole and try to see it, says Guy, director of minimally invasive and robotic cardiac surgery at the Georgia Heart Institute. Its like eating using a fork and a knife and a spoon versus using chopsticks, he says. It just, it gives you more capability and makes the operation easier.Quicker Surgery Recovery TimeRobotic surgery is easier on the patient, too.You don't break open their skeleton. You don't saw their sternum in half. You don't break ribs. You sort of sneak into the chest and fix their problem, Guy says. And that translates into faster recovery.Surgeons have always prioritized safety and effectiveness, but robotic surgery adds a new element: patient satisfaction. Quick recovery is important to patients, he says. Of course, surviving an operation is paramount, and its also important that the operation is effective and durable, says Guy. But its important to patients that it doesn't sideline them for a lengthy period of time.Guy was a pioneer in the field, gaining experience with the technique in the U.S. Army (robotic surgery grew out of a DARPA project), then going on to start five different robotic surgical programs around the country.I got enamored of the robot because I'm kind of a gadget guy, he recalls. And its gadget guys who are taking robotic surgery from fringe to mainstream. Many older surgeons never really embraced the idea of minimally invasive surgery of any kind, much less robotic surgery, says Guy. But now theyre retiring, and youve got a younger generation who grew up with iPhones and video games, and theyre much more open to it.The Medical Procedures of TomorrowNot only is robotic surgery becoming more widespread, its becoming more advanced. Earlier this year, plastic surgeon Victor Chien at Cedars-Sinai in Los Angeles led a team that performed the first robotic microsurgical head and neck cancer reconstructive surgery in the U.S.The robotic system allowed Chien and his team to operate on blood vessels thinner than a human hair. On the other side of the continent, cardiothoracic surgeon Stephanie H. Chang led a team at New York University Langone in New York that performed the worlds first fully robotic double lung transplant.Will we one day have robots operating independently? That may not be as far-fetched as it sounds. A team of researchers at Johns Hopkins University has developed an autonomous robot (Smart Tissue Autonomous Robot, or STAR) that has successfully performed abdominal surgeries on pigs without human help.I have no doubt that there will be robots that will do autonomous functions, not the whole operation, but eventually they'll do specific things, says Guy. I think of it less as a robot doing someone's procedure and more as a partnership between a human surgeon and a robotic system. It might be able to [do] some things better than the human can do because of its ability to process information much quicker.Read More: The Upsetting World of Primitive Brain SurgeryArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Johns Hopkins University HUB. Robot performs first laparoscopic surgery without human helpAnnals of Medicine and Surgery. Artificial intelligence: revolutionizing robotic surgery: reviewAmerican College of Surgeons. Robotic Surgery Is Here to Stay and So Are SurgeonsUniversity of California San Francisco. Robotic Surgery: Improving Precision and Patient OutcomesAvery Hurt is a freelance science journalist. In addition to writing for Discover, she writes regularly for a variety of outlets, both print and online, including National Geographic, Science News Explores, Medscape, and WebMD. Shes the author of Bullet With Your Name on It: What You Will Probably Die From and What You Can Do About It, Clerisy Press 2007, as well as several books for young readers. Avery got her start in journalism while attending university, writing for the school newspaper and editing the student non-fiction magazine. Though she writes about all areas of science, she is particularly interested in neuroscience, the science of consciousness, and AIinterests she developed while earning a degree in philosophy.

Spite takes many forms. You might take a little longer at the self-checkout when someone is waiting. You might increase the TV volume when someone complains about the sound. And you might turn to conspiracy theories. According to a new study in the Journal of Social Issues, thats a distinct possibility, as spitefulness plays an important part in conspiracy thinking. Spite is the desire to level the playing field by trying to knock someone else down, said David Gordon, a study author and a researcher and lecturer at the University of Staffordshire, in a press release. Conspiracy theories can serve as a way for individuals to satisfy this desire through rejecting expert opinion and scientific consensus.Spiting and Rejecting ScienceWhenever we deliberately dismiss an evidence-based explanation for an event or a series of events in favor of an implausible, illogical, or baseless explanation, we are exhibiting a belief in a conspiracy theory. Such beliefs are always popular at least 50 percent of people in the U.S. accepts at least one of them and are particularly prevalent in times of trouble, like in wars or worldwide pandemics.Often, these beliefs are based on a denial of science, whether thats the specific dismissal of climate change or vaccination safety or the broader dismissal of scientists and their work as a whole. But what pushes people to these rejections, whether theyre specific or broad?To find out, the authors of the new study turned to spite basically, the desire to harm, or to displease, distress, or offend, others. Working with a total of 1,000 participants, they found that their participants levels of spite and conspiracy thinking were linked. While individuals with low levels of spite tended to exhibit lower levels of conspiracy thinking, individuals with high levels of spite tended to exhibit higher levels of conspiracy thinking. Spiteful psychological motives tend to emerge when people feel at a competitive disadvantage, often when we feel uncertain, threatened, or undervalued, Gordon said in the release, with conspiracy theories appearing to soothe those feelings, partly through the rejection of science.Spite and Conspiracy TheoriesIn addition to the link between spite and conspiracy-theory belief, the study authors also found that those two factors were tied to three traditional indicators of conspiracy thinking: a desire for understanding (that is, an epistemic desire), a desire for security (an existential desire), and a desire for social significance (a social desire).Though spite mediated the connection between conspiracy thinking and all three indicators, the associations between spite, conspiracy thinking, and the desire to understand the world were the strongest, suggesting that changes in science communication could combat the spread of these theories. We are not suggesting that people consciously choose to be spiteful when believing and spreading conspiracy theories, said Megan Birney, another study author and a professor at the University of Birmingham, according to the release. Instead, our findings suggest that feelings of disadvantage in those three areas can provoke a common psychological spiteful response, one that makes individuals more receptive to believing conspiracy theories.According to the study authors, the results suggest that changes to science communication arent the only solution to conspiracy thinking, as any attempts to combat conspiracy theories should also combat the social and economic conditions that cause people to feel a lack of understanding, a lack of security, and a lack of social significance in their day-to-day lives. If we understand conspiracy beliefs as a manifestation of spite a reaction to real or perceived social and economic disadvantage then tackling misinformation is inseparable from addressing broader societal issues such as financial insecurity and inequality, Gordon said in the release.Read More: Debunking 3 Common Climate Change MythsArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Journal of Social Issues. Spite and Science-Denial: Exploring the Role of Spitefulness in Conspiracy Ideation and COVID-19 Conspiracy Beliefs.American Journal of Political Science. Conspiracy Theories and the Paranoid Style(s) of Mass OpinionSam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.

Those living in colder climates are no strangers to the occasional heavy snowfall, but few would be remotely prepared for 16 billion tons of snow dropping down in just a few days. As unthinkable as it sounds, this surplus of snow hit Greenland in March 2022 all from a single storm.According to a new study published in Geophysical Research Letters, this extreme snowfall event can be explained by atmospheric rivers narrow bands in the atmosphere that carry moisture and heat outside of Earths tropics. In this case, moisture flowed to cooler high latitudes and fell as solid precipitation at high elevations in Greenland. The March 2022 storm delivered enough snow to offset the Greenland ice sheets annual ice loss by 8 percent, leading researchers to wonder how atmospheric rivers will impact the Arctic in the future.Delivering Rain and SnowAtmospheric rivers are often cited as a catalyst for ice loss, as they deliver heat and rainfall from mid-latitudes. However, they sometimes have the opposite effect of replenishing ice sheets by prompting short yet intense bursts of snowfall.An atmospheric river event recently accelerated ice loss of the Greenland ice sheet (the largest ice mass in the Northern Hemisphere) in summer 2021 with copious amounts of rain, but only months later, in March 2022, another event brought 16 billion tons of snow to Greenland. In the search to uncover the true extent of snowfall during that storm, researchers developed a new perspective on atmospheric rivers. Sadly, the Greenland ice sheet wont be saved by atmospheric rivers, said study co-author Alun Hubbard, a field glaciologist at the University of Oulu, Finland, and the Arctic University of Troms, Norway, in a statement. But what we see in this new study is that, contrary to prevailing opinions, under the right conditions, atmospheric rivers might not be all bad news.Understanding the impact of atmospheric rivers on the Greenland ice sheet will prove to be consequential if the entire sheet were to melt, sea levels would rise by more than 7 meters (23 feet). Atmospheric rivers are also expected to become more frequent and more intense due to climate change, which could bring more rainfall to northern latitudes. Digging Into the Past Researchers searched for traces of the March 2022 storm in southeastern Greenland, in a region that is around 2,000 meters (6,562 feet) above sea level. Here, temperatures are consistently cold enough to retain snow accumulation on the ground year after year, creating a dense, compacted type of snow from previous seasons called firn.The researchers dug into this portion of snow and extracted a 15-meter-long (about 50 feet) firn core that represented nearly a decade of snow accumulation. By analyzing oxygen isotopes and the density of different layers in the core, the researchers were able to determine the exact amount of snowfall during the March 2022 storm.According to the results, on March 14, 2022, the Greenland ice sheet received 11.6 billion tons of snow, with an additional 4.5 billion tons falling over the next few days. This amount of snow was enough to delay the onset of summer ice melt by about 11 days.Double-Edged EffectsAs global temperatures climb, it's likely that the precipitation from atmospheric rivers will increasingly turn to rain, exacerbating Arctic ice loss. For the foreseeable future, though, atmospheric rivers may also continue to temporarily reverse the loss of mass in the Greenland ice sheet by delivering extreme snowfall during colder months. More research, ultimately, is needed to predict how the positive and negative effects of atmospheric river events will balance out in the coming years.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Geophysical Research Letters. Snow Mass Recharge of the Greenland Ice Sheet Fueled by Intense Atmospheric RiverEuropean Space Agency. Historic Greenland ice sheet rainfall unravelledAmerican Geophysical Union. Intense atmospheric rivers can replenish some of the Greenland Ice Sheets lost iceBritannica. firnJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.

The Early Permian dissorophid Cacops displays its fearsome dentition as it preys on the hapless reptile Captorhinus. (Credit: Illustration by Brian Engh (dontmesswithdinosaurs.com))The dissorophid Cacops is classified as a temnospondyl, but this image is not related to the new study.NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsOf all the animals facing a major mass extinction event 252 million years ago, it is perhaps appropriate that frog-like creatures were able to bounce back.The amphibious nature of proto-frogs called temnospondyls provided a food-seeking edge, according to a study in the journal Royal Society Open Science.Surviving a Mass-Extinction EventConditions during the Early Triassic were harsh. Repeated volcanic activity triggered long periods of global warming, aridification, reductions in atmospheric oxygen, acid rain, and widespread wildfires. The tropics became devoid of animal life, and as much as 90 percent of animal species went extinct.So how did the remaining 10 percent survive? While those conditions rendered much of the land a not-very-happy hunting ground, the temnospondyls generalist approach served them well. They found plenty of food in fresh water habitats, while their land-based competition starved.These were predatory animals that fed on fishes and other prey, but were primarily linked to the water, just like modern amphibians such as frogs and salamanders, Aamir Mehmood, a Bristol University biologist and co-author of the study, said in a press release.Read More: The Late Permian Mass Extinction ExplainedEvolutionary AdaptationsTo study how the temnospondyls adapted and survived over the next five million years, researchers examined about 100 of their fossils from throughout that period. They measured the fossils body size, skull shape, and teeth type, looking for adaptive advantages.Much to our surprise, we found that they did not change much through the crisis, Armin Elsler, a University of Bristol biologist and an author of the study, said in the release. The temnospondyls showed the same range of body sizes as in the Permian, some of them small and feeding on insects, and others larger. These larger forms included long-snouted animals that trapped fishes and broad-snouted generalist feeders.Crossing Dead ZonesDespite the intense heart, the temnospondyls were able to expand throughout the Earth, with fossils appearing in South Africa and Australia in the south, as well as North America, Europe, and Russia in the north. The authors theorize that they could cross what they call the tropical dead zones during brief cooling periods.While the lack of evolution kept the temnospondyls alive during the cataclysmic climate during the Triassics first five million years, their inability to adapt ultimately did them in.They coped with the hot conditions probably by having a low requirement for food, by being able to eat most prey animals, and by hiding in sparse water bodies, Mehmood added in the press release. "But when the ancestors of dinosaurs and of mammals began to diversify in the Middle Triassic, the temnospondyls began their long decline.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Royal Society Open Science. The ecology and geography of temnospondyl recovery after the Permian Triassic mass extinctionBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

The Industrial Revolution 150 years ago transformed human life in many ways, including granting us unlimited access to sugar. But combined with other technological advances, much of the Western population now leads a more sedentary lifestyle. The result is a society grappling with obesity and related conditions, such as type 2 diabetes. While metformin is one of the most widely prescribed antidiabetic drugs worldwide, its precise interaction with sugar has not been fully understood until now.Researchers from Kobe University in Japan have found that metformin influences sugar flux in the gut and uncovered how gut bacteria use sugar to produce compounds vital for human health. Their study, published in Communications Medicine, marks an exciting discovery of a previously unknown physiological process that may aid in the development of new diabetes therapies.Intestinal glucose excretion represents a previously unrecognized physiological process. Understanding its molecular mechanisms and how drugs influence this system could lead to the development of novel therapeutics targeting gut microbiota and their metabolites, said Wataru Ogawa, an endocrinologist from Kobe University, in a press release.When Sugar Gets Out of BalanceSugar has developed a somewhat negative reputation, but it is the body's primary energy source, fueling cellular functions and playing a crucial role in brain activity, primarily in the form of glucose.When glucose levels are high, the liver and muscles store the excess for later use. The hormone insulin regulates this process by promoting glucose uptake into cells. However, when the body becomes resistant to insulin, diabetes develops.Type 2 diabetes is the most common form and is often associated with excess weight, age (typically over 35), a family history of the disease, or a sedentary lifestyle. Medications such as metformin help manage blood sugar levels and reduce complications.A Physiological PhenomenonPrevious research showed that metformin increases the excretion of glucose into the intestines, prompting researchers to investigate the dynamics of this process in greater detail. In their study, they used a newly developed bioimaging technique called fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomographymagnetic resonance imaging (FDG PET-MRI) to track metformin induced glucose movement in both humans and mice.For the first time, the team observed glucose excretion in the small intestine, followed by its transport to the large intestine and rectum.It was surprising to find that even individuals not taking metformin exhibited a certain level of glucose excretion into the intestine. This finding suggests that intestinal glucose excretion is a universal physiological phenomenon in animals, with metformin acting to enhance this process, said Ogawa in the release.Their findings reveal that metformin significantly increases glucose transfer from the bloodstream to the intestines. But why is sugar being redirected back into the gut?Microbiome's Role in Sugar Metabolism Expanding their research, the team explored glucoses role in the large intestine and found that gut bacteria metabolize it to produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs).Gut microbes generate many substances essential for human health, including SCFAs, which serve as a primary energy source for the cells lining the gut. While bacteria that feed on undigested fiber typically produce SCFAs, the study found that glucose excreted into the intestine can also fuel this process, even in the absence of fiber.This suggests that intestinal glucose flux provides an alternative carbohydrate source for gut bacteria, enhancing SCFA production, particularly with metformin treatment. This process may contribute to the symbiotic relationship between gut microbiota and their human host.Ogawa and his team aim to further investigate how metformin and other diabetes medications affect glucose excretion, gut microbiota, and their metabolic products. Additionally, they seek to address some limitations of their study and deepen our understanding of this newly recognized physiological phenomenon.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Communications Medicine. Metformin-regulated glucose flux from the circulation to the intestinal lumenNational Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Symptoms & Causes of DiabetesHaving worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When shes not immersed in a popular science book, youll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.

The Colossal Woolly Mouse, created by Colossal Biosciences, expresses multiple mammoth-identified traits relevant to cold adaptation and provides a platform for validation of genome engineering targets (Image Courtesy of John Davidson, February 2025, Dallas, TX)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsA company that intends to bring back the woolly mammoth has taken a small, but significant step toward its massive de-extinction goal: it has created a woolly mouse. The company, Colossal Laboratories & Biosciences, used a variety of gene-editing techniques to create a number of tiny rodents with the massive, extinct species bushy hair. They reported their results in bioRxiv.org.Making the Woolly MouseTheir gene editing efforts focused on two general traits both of which are associated with cold-weather survival. One, the mammoths curly textured hair, is quite visible. The other altering a mouses metabolism to store, not burn fats is less so.To identify what genes they might target to achieve those features, they first compared the mammoth genome to that of the Asian elephant the mammoths closest surviving relative. Then they examined the genomes of many mouse models to identify the best spots in their genomes to alter. A mouse is the most genetically scrutinized mammal; it has been edited to study the traits of countless genes, sometimes by knocking out or removing them, then observing what physical characteristic or phenotype results.Read More: Will Woolly Mammoths Ever Make a Comeback?Genetic Editing ToolboxThe researchers altered a total of 10 genes but not all in the same mouse. And not all mice had the same genes edited. The most heavily edited mouse had 7 genes altered with 8 different tweaks.The edits that we predicted resulted in what we wanted, says Ben Lamm, co-founder and CEO of the company. We got what we predicted.The groups next step is to study how these edits help the mice adapt to colder climates. They are awaiting animal study permission before they proceed with those experiments.Even though the companys ultimate goal is to bring back the mammoth as well as the dodo and an extinct tiger species they say their work will help both human health and wildlife conservation along the way.First, using their toolbox of editing techniques on animals could pave the way for similar work in people. The toolbox includes a host of methods, ranging from the ability to change a single genetic letter to replacing a fairly lengthy string of DNA.Different tools allow us to access different parts of the genomes, says Beth Shapiro, the companys chief scientific officer.Next Stop, Bringing the Mammoth Back?Although the group does intense computation analysis first, this proof of principle is necessary to show how effective are the edits and what physical differences arise from them. This is an important step before they make similar changes in much larger mammals.We want to really understand what the impacts of our edits are before we experiment with elephants, Shapiro says.They are now working on edits that would change an Asian elephants skull and face to more closely resemble a mammoths. They are experimenting with artificial wombs that could birth a de-extinct mammal. The company intends to bring back its version of a mammoth in 2028.Potential Ethical IssuesHowever, some people have doubts that, even if it is scientifically possible to bring back a large mammal from extinction, is it a good idea? Arthur Caplan, a bioethicist at New York University, isnt so sure. Is this somehow ethically pernicious? No, Caplan says. But I think it's overpromised, somewhat misdirected, and maybe over-hyped.Caplan points out that much simpler techniques like human gene therapy and animal cloning (without unintended birth defects) have still not yet been perfected. The project's money and expertise would be better served with scientific goals that could improve human health sooner.He agrees that the scientific pedigree of the projects founder George Church, a key pioneer in genome sequencing, is impeccable. But Caplan is not sure pushing the envelope scientifically just for the sake of it is wise. Such approaches wind up giving us ethics heartburn, he says, pointing to proposals to bring back smallpox for study or to research or even create some deadly viral agent.The company says that it has been checking all the necessary bioethics boxes and is adhering to animal research reviews policies. They first do computational models, then experiments in petri dishes, before moving on to edits in animals. The results in this first round of experiments yielded no surprises.The only unexpected consequence was overall cuteness, says Lamm.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article: bioRxiv Pre-Print. Multiplex-edited mice recapitulate woolly mammoth hair phenotypesBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.1 free article leftWant More? 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Animals are increasingly becoming as well-traveled as humans, with the rate of pet travel increasing by 19 percent in the last decade, according to a 2023 study. Meanwhile, in the U.S., two million domestic animals board commercial flights every year.But how safe is air travel for our pets? Veterinarians say that while theres not one aspect of flight that is necessarily more dangerous or harmful than another, it depends on how prepared pet owners are and the animal itself. Are Airplanes Safe for Pets? Planes may not be an environment your typical dog or cat is used to, but that doesnt necessarily mean flying will cause their bodies to go haywire. Youve been on planes as well. Its something where youre in a little bit of tight quarters, but your body doesnt really work in a different way, says veterinarian Elizabeth Rozanski, who also teaches at the Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine in Tufts University. And like humans, the changes in altitude, air pressure, and temperature associated with flight can also register to pets as discomfort. From ear and sinus pressure to dehydration due to the dry circulating air, rarely are these physiologic changes detrimental to pet health. The difference, says Kristin Zersen, veterinarian and assistant professor of small animal emergency and critical care at the Colorado State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital, is that your pet doesnt logically know why they feel that way. I think of our pets like infants. We cant communicate to them that theres going to be pressure in their ears and their ears are going to pop and thats okay, so that can be quite stressful, Zersen says. Rising Stress LevelsParticularly for animals who are not used to long distance air travel, these new, unprecedented sensations can trigger stress. Even before taking off, the mere experience of a crowded, loud, and smelly airport can quickly overwhelm a pet who has never been exposed to that much activity before. Studies on various animals have also found their stress levels do rise during air transport especially during phases of planing and deplaning, for example. One study tracked the physiological responses of air journeys in 24 beagles and found the greatest increases in their heart rates occurred while loading and unloading.Our pets are very routine-oriented, and [travel is] a big disruption to their routine, says Lori Teller, veterinarian and Texas A&M University clinical professor. Compounding Stress and SignsWhile in its kennel, a dog may pant more, lick its lips more often, or freeze, resembling a statue.Its really important to know your pet and know what normal behavior is for your pets, Teller says. Researchers who surveyed dog owners on their travel experiences found that while fewer dogs showed signs of stress after flight, 70.1 percent of owners dogs showed at least one sign of stress at handover, and 72.4 percent did so during the journey itself.Stress can compound itself, where it can grow into even greater stress responses. If natural behavioral responses to stressful triggers are limited by, say, the confined space of a kennel, that could in turn trigger raises in heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.In Tellers experience, she says, its rare for her to see pets experiencing long-term effects after travel. Some animals may be clingier than usual or lose some appetite, but most, on the other hand, recover within a few days as they adjust to their new environments and routines.The Most Vulnerable PetsWhile most pets are fortunately able to handle flights, there are certain breeds of dogs and cats that are far more vulnerable to the rigor of travel. Brachycephalic breeds in particular or breeds with smushed-in faces like pugs or Persian cats are much more susceptible to breathing difficulties and overheating during transport. Those animals, by far and away, are the ones at highest risk for dying during plane travel, Zersen says. That is because they have abnormal airways. When they get stressed, they start panting. Their airway swells and they die because their airway swells shut. Additional precautions that owners can take if they must fly with those breeds, Zersen suggests, are speaking with their providers about potential anti-anxiety medications. Even bringing along a wrapped ice pack inside their kennel could help keep any pet cool, especially during the summer months. Older animals with chronic health conditions like heart disease or diabetes may also find their conditions exacerbated or worsened by plane rides as well especially as oxygen levels change with altitude. I never want to tell somebody not to fly their dog, but I want to tell them to really think carefully about it, Rozanski says. Making Travel Easy for PetsBefore even stepping foot in the airport, though, one of the best ways to ensure travel goes smoothly for your pets is to prepare them well ahead of time. Acclimating pets to the travel carriers theyll be kept in is incredibly helpful in reducing stressful triggers associated with confined spaces and moving locations. Keeping the kennel open, perhaps with some enticing treats inside, suggests Zersen, and having your pet spend more and more time in it will allow them to see it as a safe spot, even as they change environments. Moreover, even taking your pet around for a joyride in the car can get them used to movement and clue owners in on whether theyll need further intervention for motion sickness or anxiety which could be provided via medication. Sedation is an option, but vets like Rozanski, Teller, and Zersen try to avoid it if they can. If the animal has a history of separation anxiety or unceasing nervousness even with these other interventions, any instances of sedatives need to be trialed before travel so both owner and pet can get used to the proper dosage and effects. For the most part, it goes well, and Im really happy for people to take their dogs places, Rozanski says. Its just something where you should think about it carefully and make sure youre truly ready to go and you have everything, before you just hop on a plane.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:National Library of Medicine. How Well Do Dogs Cope with Air Travel? An Owner-Reported Survey StudyNational Library of Medicine. Physiology and behavior of dogs during air transportSage Journals. Feline stress management during air travel: a multimodal approachAmerican Veterinary Medical Association. Air travel and short-nosed dogs FAQ

Self-driving cars, like the Volkswagen Herbie and KITT from Knight Rider, are gradually transitioning from science fiction to reality. The benefits are clear: passengers can use their commute to relax, work, or be entertained while reducing accidents caused by human error. Additionally, autonomous vehicles offer increased mobility for individuals unable to drive themselves.However, giving up control in the complex environment of road traffic requires highly advanced technology. Ongoing developments aim to bring fully autonomous vehicles to our roads, and one key area of focus is how these cars can communicate effectively such as sharing updates on road conditions to enhance safety and efficiency.A research team from New York University (NYU) Tandon School of Engineering has developed a system to improve communication between autonomous vehicles, similar to how people interact on social networks. Their advancements were presented at the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence Conference on February 27, 2025.The Current State of Autonomous CarsSelf-driving vehicles rely on sensors, cameras, and artificial intelligence (AI) to make informed decisions and navigate roads with minimal human input. The Society of Automotive Engineers classifies vehicle automation into six levels, from 0 (fully manual) to 5 (fully autonomous, meaning the vehicle can drive itself in all conditions without human intervention).So far, no self-driving car has achieved full autonomy. The most advanced models, such as self-driving taxi services in California and Arizona, currently operate at Level 4. However, widespread adoption faces challenges, including the potential for accidents and concerns over data privacy.AI enables autonomous vehicles to exchange knowledge when they interact directly, improving road navigation instantly. However, conventional model-sharing methods rely on immediate, one-on-one exchanges, which slows adaptation to new conditions. This is similar to how humans would struggle to spread information efficiently if they had to meet every recipient in person rather than passing messages through others.Making Car-to-Car Communication More EfficientTo overcome this limitation, researchers have introduced a new approach called Cached Decentralized Federated Learning (Cached-DFL). This method enhances how vehicles learn from one another, even if they seldom cross paths. Unlike traditional Federated Learning, which depends on a central server for updates, Cached-DFL allows vehicles to train AI models independently and exchange them directly.When two vehicles come within close range about 100 meters they use high-speed communication to share trained models rather than transmitting raw data. This significantly accelerates adaptation and enhances learning efficiency compared to earlier decentralized approaches."It's a bit like how information spreads in social networks," explained Yong Liu, professor at NYU Tandons Electrical and Computer Engineering Department and supervisor of the project in a press release. "Devices can now pass along knowledge from others they've met, even if those devices never directly encounter each other."Better Communication Enhances SafetyCached-DFL addresses the challenge of enabling autonomous vehicles to learn from one another while maintaining data security. With this technology, self-driving cars can share crucial information about road conditions, signals, and obstacles especially beneficial in urban areas where vehicles experience diverse conditions but seldom interact long enough for conventional learning methods to be effective."A car that has only driven in Manhattan could now learn about road conditions in Brooklyn from other vehicles, even if it never drives there itself. This would make every vehicle smarter and better prepared for situations it hasn't personally encountered, Liu added.As AI shifts from centralized servers to edge devices, Cached-DFL offers a secure and efficient way for self-driving cars to evolve collectively, improving their intelligence and adaptability. Moreover, this technology extends beyond autonomous vehicles; it can be applied to other networked systems of smart mobile agents such as drones, robots, and satellites to achieve decentralized learning and swarm intelligence. With researchers making their code publicly available, these advancements have the potential to accelerate innovation across multiple industries.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Cornell University. Decentralized Federated Learning with Model Caching on Mobile AgentsHaving worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When shes not immersed in a popular science book, youll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.

In one small step toward lunar commercialization, the first-ever privately funded lander touched down March 2, 2025 on the moons surface. The lander, named Blue Ghost, launched from NASAs Kennedy Space Center in Florida on Jan. 15, 2025, then travelled more than 2.8 million miles before safely coming to rest in a 300-mile-wide basin near a volcanic feature called Mons Latreille on the moon.First-Ever Private LanderThe lander was developed by Texas company Firefly Aerospace. Its mission is the first by five vendors to make 11 lunar deliveries under NASAs Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS). CLPS contracts thus far total $2.6 billion through 2028. NASA paid the Texas-based company $101 million for the delivery, plus $44 million for the science and tech on board. Such operations are intended to pave the way for further NASA exploration.Were sending these payloads by working with American companies which supports a growing lunar economy, Nicky Fox, a NASA administrator, said in a press release.Samples and ExperimentsThe lander delivered 10 NASA science and technology instruments that will collect samples and perform experiments on the moon over one lunar day about 14 Earth days. The surface operations include lunar drilling as deep as 10 feet to measure temperatures below the satellites surface, vacuuming up moon dust samples, and taking X-ray images. Equipment also includes a device to eliminate pesky lunar dusk, which has caked spacesuits and equipment in earlier lunar visits. The data will provide how space weather and other cosmic forces impact Earth. The lander is also tasked with several photographic assignments. On March 14, 2025, it is scheduled to take high-definition pictures of a lunar eclipse when the Earth blocks the sun from the moons horizon. On March 16, 2025, it will photograph a lunar sunset. A key aspect of that imagery will be capturing how lunar dusk levitates due to the suns influence.The lander will share some of this imagery via a blog. Firefly is literally and figuratively over the Moon, Jason Kim, CEO of Firefly Aerospace, said in a press release.Are There Other Landers?Thus far, only five countries have successfully landed on the moon: Russia, the U.S., China, India, and Japan. Another privately funded lander is scheduled to join Blue Ghost March 6, 2025 but closer to the moons south pole. The company behind that project, Intuitive Machines, had an unsuccessful event previously last year when its lander broke a leg and tipped over. Another commercial lander, funded by a Japanese company, also rode the same rocket into space with Blue Ghost. Like the Intuitive effort, this is the companys second attempt after a crash in 2023.Wreckage from a few dozen or so landers now litter the moons surface. NASA intends to propel two private landers to the moon a year over the next several years.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Firefly Aerospace. Firefly Successfully Touched Down on the Moon on March 2!Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

The national parks within the U.S. are wonders to behold. They havent been named Americas Best Idea for nothing. And while they may simply seem like places to vacation, they are much, much more than that. Beyond their pristine beauty, where you can find peace and adventure, they are home to some extraordinary species, including some animals on the endangered species list.The National Park Service (NPS) staff, including rangers and researchers, work tirelessly to ensure these animals have a safe and thriving home to live in. However, their jobs have just become a little harder, and combined with a changing climate, its possible these animals could be even more threatened. 1. Kemps Ridley Sea Turtles(Credit: Mahmud Hidayat/Shutterstock) Not only are Kemps ridleys the smallest sea turtle species, but theyre also the most endangered. These turtles are often caught as bycatch in commercial fishing nets and, during the 1940s to the 1960s, were often harvested for their meat and skin. Poachers also raided their nests for eggs.At one point, there were over 40,000 nesting females, but by the 1980s, that number had dipped to 300. The NPS, along with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), worked hard to help preserve nesting beaches and sea turtle habitats. Their numbers are still low, under 6,000 nesting females, but they are seeing a rebound.2. Indiana and Northern Long-Eared Bats(Image Credit: Daniel Istvanko/Shutterstock) Some bat species that live around the Great Lakes Region, such as the Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) and the northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis), are classified as endangered. They may live near national park sites like Indiana Dunes National Park and the Apostle Islands National Lakeshore, among others.At the moment, bats are experiencing white nose syndrome (WNS), a highly infectious fungus that can bring bats out of hibernation and damage their wings. The NPS works to monitor bat populations and inform visitors about the spread of WNS to help keep them safe.3. Black Footed Ferret(Image Credit: Kerry Hargrove/Shutterstock) In 1980, it was believed that the black footed ferret had gone extinct. However, there were a few survivors still residing in Badlands National Park. The ferret population has been greatly impacted by disease, and with so few survivors, researchers decided to capture the remaining wild ferrets and bred them in captivity. The population went from 18 ferrets in the late '80s to about 3,000 now. You can find wild ferrets running around the Badlands National Park today.4. Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep(Credit: Wirestock Creators/Shutterstock) The Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep is an iconic symbol of the Sierra Nevada region and a subspecies of traditional bighorn sheep. During the gold rush of the late 1800s, these sheep were exposed to diseases from flocks of domestic livestock brought in by miners. Soon, the population began to dwindle.By the late 1970s, only about 250 individuals remained. During the 1980s, the NPS, along with the Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep Interagency Advisory Group (SNBSIAG), helped grow the population and reintroduce herds to Yosemite National Park.5. Desert Pupfish(Image Credit: clayton harrison/Shutterstock) The desert seems like an odd place for fish to live, but its precisely where the desert pupfish calls home. In Devils Hole, a water-filled cavern in Death Valley National Park, researchers discovered the pupfish. This little fish thrives in the salinated waters of Devil's Hole and eats the algae that grows there.Every year, NPS researchers do a fish count. The average population is about 300 fish; however, in 2013, the population dipped to about 90, though researchers are not sure why. The NPS had been monitoring the waters constantly, and the 2024 count found that there were about 200 fish in Devils Hole.These arent the only species that NPS and other agencies like NOAA protect. These incredible animals call the parks their homes, and if were lucky enough, while visiting the parks, we may even get to see them. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:NPS. Kemp's ridley sea turtlesNOAA. Kemp's Ridley Turtle A graduate of UW-Whitewater, Monica Cull wrote for several organizations, including one that focused on bees and the natural world, before coming to Discover Magazine. Her current work also appears on her travel blog and Common State Magazine. Her love of science came from watching PBS shows as a kid with her mom and spending too much time binging Doctor Who.

The future of space exploration looks to grow even brighter as the launch of NASAs highly anticipated SPHEREx mission lies right on the horizon. The mission, set to launch the evening of March 4, 2025 will survey the vast expanse of space for the next two years to construct an unprecedented map of the sky.NASA is ready to tackle the universes most pressing questions with Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization and Ices Explorer (SPHEREx). Launching on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket out of the Vandenberg Space Force Base in California, the telescope will not only chronicle the history of the universe by identifying galaxies billions of light years away from Earth, but it will also carry out an important search closer to home as it combs through the Milky Way for signs of water and organic molecules.A Colorful Sky MapIn its venture to study the universe, the SPHEREx space telescope will collect data on more than 450 million galaxies, along with more than 100 million stars in the Milky Way alone. To accomplish this feat, the telescope will use observations in optical and near-infrared light.Visible light makes up a small segment of the electromagnetic spectrum and is the only part the human eye can see. Near-infrared light, on the other hand, exists just beyond the scope of what is visible to us.The longer wavelengths of infrared light are better suited to pass through particles, especially dense regions of gas and dust in space. Because of this, infrared telescopes have become an integral tool for viewing hidden pockets of space that we usually couldnt see with optical telescopes.Every six months while in space, SPHEREx will build a detailed map of the entire sky in 102 different infrared colors through spectroscopy this technique will render light from stars and galaxies into individual colors, similar to how a prism makes a rainbow when hit with sunlight.Exploring the Early UniverseInfrared light also gives scientists a glimpse of faraway galaxies, which may help them piece together the growth of the universe in its early history. One of the key objectives of SPHEREx is to uncover evidence of cosmic inflation, which entails a theory describing how the universe may have expanded faster than the speed of light for a fraction of a second after the Big Bang. Somewhere out in the distant universe, leftover cosmic ripples from this event could hold answers.SPHEREx will look back at another era of the universes history, called the epoch of reionization. During this period, starting a few hundred million years after the Big Bang, ultraviolet light from the earliest stars caused the atoms of gas in the universe to lose their electrons. Studying this era could provide insight into the early formation of stars and galaxies.Read More: Did the Big Bang Happen More Than Once?In Pursuit of Water In our own Milky Way, SPHEREx will scan regions of space gas and dust, called molecular clouds, to find water, carbon dioxide, and other essential ingredients of life. With prior help from the James Webb Space Telescope, scientists have deduced that molecules for these ingredients take on the form of interstellar ice that adheres to grains of gas and dust. Delving into molecular clouds, where stars and planets begin to take shape, SPHEREx will look for water ice and other frozen compounds. Scientists hope this effort will make progress in addressing questions about how ice forms in these clouds and what effect star formation might have on the process. The answers may even lead us to a better understanding of how Earth got its oceans and grew to sustain life in the first place.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:NASA. In a Different LightCenter for Astrophysics. Preparing to Study the Epoch of ReionizationJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.

An area of the brain called Heschls gyrus long known for handling early auditory processing plays a far greater role in interpreting speech than previously understood. It helps interpret the meaning behind subtle changes in pitch, tone, and emphasis into meaningful information, according to a recent study published in the journal Nature Communications.Scientists had long thought that deciphering those qualities collectively known as prosody happened in the superior temporal gyrus, an area of the brain associated with speech perception. But experiments that monitored epileptic patients brains now challenge those assumptions.Understanding Speech PerceptionA rare set of circumstances led to the discovery. As part of treatment for severe epilepsy, 11 adolescent patients had electrodes implanted deep into the part of the brain that is critical for key language function. The surgeries and experiments took place at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. It represented a close collaboration between neurosurgeons and neuroscientists.Communication and linguistics research typically rely on recordings from skin surfaces. That method is minimally invasive but also not very precise.While patients listened to an audiobook version of Alice in Wonderland, scientists monitored activity in multiple regions of their brains. The recordings mapped subtle changes in the readers voice to Heschls gyrus. Different parts of the brain reacted to the sounds that made up words.The results redefine our understanding of the architecture of speech perception, Barath Chandrasekaran, a Northwestern University scientist and an author of the paper, said in a press release. Weve spent a few decades researching the nuances of how speech is abstracted in the brain, but this is the first study to investigate how subtle variations in pitch that also communicate meaning is processed in the brain. Read More: 5 Thought-Provoking Facts About Brain FunctionImplications for AIThe research also showed that the rise and fall of speech is encoded much earlier in auditory processing than previously thought. Similar research conducted on non-human primates found that those brains could not process these abstract meanings, even though they listened to the same recordings.The discovery of the role Heschls gyrus plays in processing speech holds implications in several fields. This understanding could aide speech rehabilitation, make AI-powered assistants more perceptive, as well as foster a better understanding of what makes human communication unique.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Nature Communications. Cortical processing of discrete prosodic patterns in continuous speechBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Crewed space travel isnt just an engineering feat. Its a test of the endurance and resilience of the human body. In microgravity, astronauts' bodies undergo dramatic changes: muscles weaken, bones lose density, fluids shift, and vision can be affected. Beyond that, deep space exposes them to radiation, which can damage DNA and increase long-term health risks.As space agencies and private companies plan for missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond, understanding exactly how space travel impacts the human body is key. Thats why researchers are continuously developing exercise regimens, protective technologies, and medical countermeasures informed by countless studies. But still, space remains an unforgiving frontier one that continues to push the limits of human biology with every mission.Microgravitys Toll on the BodyGravity is a silent force shaping the human body. On Earth, it strengthens muscles, maintains bone density, and regulates fluid distribution. In microgravity, however, that balance is lost. Without the need to support body weight, muscles begin to weaken especially in the legs, back, and core. Bones suffer, too. NASA research shows that astronauts typically lose 1 percent to 1.5 percent of their bone density per month, increasing the risk of fractures and osteoporosis.To combat these effects, astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) follow a strict exercise routine, spending about two hours a day on resistance-based workouts using specialized equipment. Some are even prescribed bone-strengthening medications, such as bisphosphonates, to help slow deterioration. While these measures help, they dont completely prevent bone loss, making long-duration missions a challenge for human physiology.Fluid Shifts and Vision ChangesMicrogravity doesnt just weaken muscles and bones. It disrupts the way fluids move throughout the body. On Earth, gravity pulls internal fluids downward. But in space, fluids shift toward the upper body and head. This redistribution of about two liters of fluid causes facial puffiness, head congestion, and increased pressure inside the skull.For about 70 percent of astronauts, these changes are dramatic enough that they lead to Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS), a condition where excess fluid in the head deforms the shape of the eye. The result? Structural changes in the brain, blurry vision, and, in some cases, permanent eyesight changes. Scientists are still working to understand why some astronauts develop SANS while others dont, but the condition could pose an even more significant challenge for deep-space missions.The Threat of Cosmic RadiationEarths magnetic field acts as a shield, largely protecting us from high-energy radiation from the Sun and galactic cosmic rays. But in space, especially beyond Earths orbit, astronauts are more exposed to these particles, which can damage DNA, increase cancer risk, and accelerate cellular aging.Radiation may also negatively impact brain function. Some research even suggests that prolonged exposure to space radiation could speed up how quickly beta-amyloid plaques build up in the brain, potentially increasing the risk of cognitive diseases like Alzheimers.To protect astronauts, scientists are working on better spacecraft shielding, radiation-resistant materials, and even pharmaceutical treatments that could reduce cellular damage. But until these defenses improve, radiation exposure remains one of the biggest barriers to crewed interplanetary exploration.The Psychological and Emotional TollSpace travel is not only a physical challenge, but also a major mental test. Isolation, confinement, and the pressures of high-stakes decision-making can weigh heavily on astronauts.Sleep is another challenge. The ISS orbits Earth every 90 minutes, meaning astronauts experience 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. This rapidly changing light cycle can disrupt circadian rhythms, which can adversely affect awareness, concentration, and performance.To help astronauts maintain their mental and physical well-being, space agencies implement carefully structured schedules that regulate work, exercise, and rest. NASA also uses strategic LED lighting systems that are tuned to brighter, bluer light during the morning hours and dimmer, redder light during the evening hours. This helps the astronauts synchronize their internal clocks and improves their sleep. Preparing for the Future: Safeguarding Human Health in SpaceAs we plan to push humans farther into space, researchers are racing to develop new ways to protect astronauts that will undertake long-term missions to the Moon, or even other planets. Some of the most promising advancements include:Pharmaceutical solutions: Scientists are exploring medications that can slow bone loss, preserving skeletal strength in microgravity. Other drugs aim to protect cells from radiation damage, potentially reducing long-term health risks such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Enhanced exercise technology: Engineers are developing advanced resistance and vibration-based exercise equipment to better mimic the effects of gravity on muscles and bones. These improvements could help astronauts maintain strength and endurance more effectively during extended missions. Improved spacecraft shielding: Researchers are testing new materials and innovative detection and shielding techniques to absorb or deflect cosmic radiation. Future spacecraft may incorporate multi-layered protective barriers or even water as built-in radiation shields. Artificial gravity research Scientists are investigating rotating spacecraft designs that could generate artificial gravity through centrifugal force. This technology could help counteract the harmful effects of prolonged weightlessness by providing astronauts with a more Earth-like environment.Moreover, the integration of wearable technology is already revolutionizing how researchers monitor astronaut health in real time. These devices track everything from muscle activity to sleep patterns, providing critical data that help tailor countermeasures to individual needs. As we look to future missions, including potential voyages to Mars, all these medical and technological innovations will be central to ensuring crew safety and mission success.The human body is adaptable, but space presents challenges unlike any weve faced before. Each mission expands our understanding of how we function beyond Earths boundaries, inching us closer to a future where humans can thrive in space.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:NASA. Astronaut ExerciseNASA Technical Brief. Bone LossNational Library of Medicine. Fluid shifts, vasodilatation and ambulatory blood pressure reduction during long duration spaceflightNational Library of Medicine. Navigating the Unknown: A Comprehensive Review of Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-Ocular SyndromeNational Library of Medicine. Spacebrain: The negative effects of space exposure on the central nervous systemNational Library of Medicine. Translating current biomedical therapies for long duration, deep space missions

Inbreeding or chlamydia? Its an impossible situation. But its a situation that koalas are facing in the suburbs of Sydney, Australia, where low levels of genetic diversity are threatening one of the only chlamydia-free populations of koalas thats left.According to a new analysis in Conservation Genetics, the koalas in the southwestern suburbs of Sydney are some of the only koalas in New South Wales that are still free of chlamydia, a contagious disease thats devastated the other koala populations in the state (and in Australia as a whole). But the koalas in Sydney still arent safe, thanks to their low levels of genetic diversity. Without diversity, endangered species risk succumbing to disease outbreaks and environmental threats, said Elspeth McLennan, one of the authors of the analysis and a researcher at the University of Sydneys School of Environmental and Life Sciences, according to a press release. Read More: Why Do So Many Weird Animals Live in Australia?The Threats Against Sydneys Suburban Koalas Chlamydia, a contagious disease thats spread amongst koalas and humans alike, is a major threat for todays koalas. Brought on by two separate species of bacteria in the animals, Chlamydia pecorum and Chlamydia pneumoniae, the disease (which isnt thought to transfer between koalas and humans) can cause blindness and infertility and is tied to dramatic declines in koala populations.Only a few areas are still safe from the disease for koalas, including the southwestern suburbs of Sydney, where koala populations sit at around 600 to 1,000 individuals.Taking tissue samples from 111 koalas in this area and beyond and subjecting the samples to genetic analysis, McLennan and her colleagues found that the animals had high levels of inbreeding and low levels of genetic diversity. On average, koalas in the Sydney populations have cousin or half-sibling relationships, McLennan said in the release. These dynamics could cause trouble for the suburban koalas, leaving them susceptible to disease. But any possible solutions to this issue pose their own problems, as any attempt to bring koalas in from other areas could cause chlamydia to spread, with potentially catastrophic consequences. (Indeed, the koalas high levels of inbreeding and low levels of genetic diversity mean they are likely to lack the genetic defenses against chlamydia, leaving them vulnerable to the disease if the disease did spread.)Its a classic Catch-22 situation, McLennan said in the release. If koalas from other areas of New South Wales come into Sydney, they could bring genetic diversity. But they could also bring chlamydia. If the latter happens, individual koalas are unlikely to have enough genetic variation to adapt to the threat, McLennan added in the release. Isolation, Inbreeding, and the Looming Danger of DiseaseHow did Sydneys koalas become so inbred in the first place? McLennan and her colleagues say that urbanization has isolated the animals, preventing them from breeding with koalas from outside of the city. This isolation protects them from chlamydia but leaves them at risk if they were ever to encounter the disease. Instead of some individuals being able to naturally clear chlamydia without it progressing to blindness and infertility, it is possible all individuals will contract the infection whereby it progresses to the later stages of the disease, McLennan said in the release.According to the new analysis, it is possible that koalas from beyond Sydneys southwestern suburbs will wander closer to Sydney. Indeed, McLennan and her colleagues found that koalas from Wollondilly Shire, where chlamydia is present, are already moving to Campbelltown, where it is not. Koalas are endangered in New South Wales and in several other areas of Australia, having seen a 24-percent decline in population in the past two decades. While the threats in southwest Sydney seem particularly dire, they hint at the troubles that are threatening koala populations elsewhere. Beyond southwest Sydney, the results show the importance of managing koala populations and their surrounding landscapes. We need to ensure ongoing connectivity between all koala populations to maintain their health and resilience to threats, McLennan said in the release. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Sam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.

Sweetness may be contagious. A growing body of research has revealed that the type of people who have a sweet tooth may also have a sweet temperament.According to the conceptual metaphor theory, metaphors such as love is sweet may be more than just linguistic terms they can build scaffolds to unconsciously guide our behavior, says Michael Schaefer, a neuropsychologist at Medical School Berlin.A Sweet Tooth and Sweet TemperamentIn research published in 2012, Brian Meier, a psychologist at Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania, and his colleagues studied the potential link between sweets and temperament. They confirmed that people commonly believed those with a sweet tooth were typically more agreeable.In other tests, the team gave sweet chocolate to some participants and non-sweet food like crackers to others, and found that the former were more likely to help people in need. They also found that people who professed a liking for sweet foods were more likely than those who did not like sweet foods to assist in cleaning up their city after a flood.Not all researchers agreed with these findings. In 2014, Michael Ashton, a psychologist from Brock University in Canada, and his colleagues tried to replicate Meiers 2012 findings by running similar experiments, but with a much larger number of participants. They couldnt find a strong link between a preference for sweet food and an agreeable personality.We conclude that prosocial personality is not substantially associated with sweet taste preferences, Ashton and his team wrote in their study.Nonetheless, other researchers conducted similar tests, and did find a link between agreeableness and a taste for sweet food.Cultural DifferencesNot every culture perceives food the same way, just as not every culture necessarily has the same temperament. To address any potential cultural differences, Meier and his colleagues wanted to approach the question using participants from different countries.Cultures may be different both in taste preferences as well as in their temperament, says Schaefer, who worked with Meier on a recent study published in the Journal of Research in Personality.Their team tested participants from China, Germany, Mexico, and the United States. They asked people to rate their liking for salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and spicy food, as well as what kinds of sweet foods they liked. They then compared these to results they gathered from an established questionnaire that examined the Big Five personality factors. Agreeableness is one of the five traits examined from this test. They found that the link between taste and personality were replicated in other cultures.Schaefer notes there are some drawbacks to the study. Participants were asked to describe their own personalities, which may differ in some cases to the way others see them.In other words, individuals who like sweets may only see themselves as being more social and being a sweetie but this may not reflect their real behavior or the view by others, he says.A sweet tooth may not be the only thing that affects agreeableness. Schaefer says that in some countries, preferences for salty food may be also linked to agreeableness. But the evidence isnt as strong.Sweets and ChildhoodSchaefer says there are several theories why taste and agreeableness might be linked, though he says that these are mostly speculative at this point. One of them may start in childhood. Some people may learn to associate the sweetness of breast milk or baby formula with social caring a correlation that continues into adulthood.Or it might go back even further than our childhood.The preference for sweet food may be innate to all of us, because sweet food offers a primary energy source and the preference for this taste may enable us to look for plants with high available glucose, Schaefer says. Moreover, sweet food provides information on potential beneficial effects of food in contrast to bitter taste, which signals toxicity.These sentiments could lead to links between sweet preference and sociability, or approachableness. Given this link, we may tend to act more social, when we like sweet taste, because we may seek consistency in our perceptions, says Schaefer.Researching Personal HealthFor some researchers, theres more to finding a simple correlation between food preference and temperament. Some are researching the connection between obesity and sweets, and how having a sweet tooth might put someone in a romantic mindset.Considering that psychological effects of sweet taste include prosocial and outgoing behavior, one might speculate that a training to improve sweet taste might change depressive symptoms and/or overweight and obesity, Schaefer and Eileen Garbow wrote in their 2021 study on the topic.But they cautioned that the research on psychological sweet effects is still in its infancy, and that it remains unclear whether the psychological effects may be used to improve an individuals health.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:American Psychological Association. Sweet taste preferences and experiences predict prosocial inferences, personalities, and behaviors.Science Daily. People with a 'sweet tooth' have sweeter dispositionsJournal of Research in Personality. Do prosocial people prefer sweet-tasting foods? An attempted replication of Meier, Moeller, Riemer-Peltz, and Robinson (2012)Individual Differences. Dispositional Properties of MetaphorJournal of Research in Personality. Cross-cultural evidence for an association between agreeableness and sweet taste preferencesApplied Sciences. Psychological Effects of Sweet Taste and Sweet Taste PreferenceJoshua Rapp Learn is an award-winning D.C.-based science writer. An expat Albertan, he contributes to a number of science publications like National Geographic, The New York Times, The Guardian, New Scientist, Hakai, and others.

Animated movies can be an entertaining way to learn fascinating facts about the animal kingdom. Pixars 2003 classic Finding Nemo introduced many children and adults to marine biology for the first time. Among other things, it highlighted the symbiotic relationship between clownfish and their sea anemone hosts where the anemones sting protects the fish from predators, and in return, the fish help keep the anemone clean.A recent study has expanded our understanding of this partnership. Researchers from Japans Osaka Metropolitan University observed that clownfish, also known as anemonefish, actively share food with their hosts, reinforcing their mutualistic relationship. Their findings, published in Scientific Reports, highlight a previously unrecognized benefit of this unique marine collaboration.Symbiotic RelationshipsSurvival in the natural world often depends on cooperation. Many species have evolved close relationships classified as mutualistic (beneficial to both), commensalistic (one benefits while the other is unaffected), or parasitic (one benefits at the expense of the other). Nutrient exchange is a major driver of symbiosis and is found across a wide range of species.For example, ants protect certain trees from herbivores while feeding on the trees nectar. Wolves provide carcasses for scavengers like ravens, which, in turn, learn to follow wolf howls for food opportunities. Another well-documented case involves goby fish and shrimp, demonstrating the complexity of interspecies interactions.The shrimp excavates and maintains a burrow in the sand, offering shelter to both itself and the goby. However, since the shrimp has poor vision, it relies on the goby for protection. When a predator approaches, the goby warns the shrimp with a tail flick, prompting them both to retreat into the burrow. Additionally, the shrimp benefits from nutrients provided by the gobys waste, further strengthening their bond.Another remarkable example of symbiosis in the ocean is the relationship between sea anemones and anemonefish.A Special BondOne of the longest-studied marine symbioses is that between anemonefish and sea anemones. Although coral reefs host diverse species, they are nutrient-poor, making symbiotic interactions essential for survival.Sea anemones provide anemonefish with shelter and a secure spawning site thanks to their stinging tentacles. In return, anemonefish remove waste, consume harmful invertebrates, and deposit nutrient-rich fecal matter that benefits the anemone. Until recently, this was thought to be the extent of their contributions until researchers observed anemonefish deliberately feeding their hosts.For the first time, scientists documented anemonefish taking pieces of clam, holding them in their mouths, and attaching them to their host anemones tentacles. This behavior led researchers to hypothesize that anemonefish actively provide food to their hosts and prompted further investigation into the factors influencing this behavior and its impact on the anemones.Fishing for New DiscoveriesThe research team conducted fieldwork at Morode Beach, Ainan, South Japan, to study the anemonefish Amphiprion clarkii and its host, the sea anemone Entacmaea quadricolor.Their observations revealed that anemonefish selectively consumed small animal-based foods like krill, clams, squid, and fish, as well as green macroalgae, while reserving larger pieces of animal food for their anemone hosts. They avoided consuming or offering brown macroalgae and sponges, which appeared unsuitable as food for either species. The fish initially ate to satisfy their own hunger before increasing the amount of food provided to their hosts.We also confirmed that feeding the anemonefish directly increases the growth rate of the sea anemones, explained Ph.D. student Kobayashi in a press release. It is known that in other anemonefish species, the number of eggs laid increases when the hosts are larger. For anemonefish, which cannot leave their sea anemone, feeding their hosts is extremely important and will ultimately benefit themselves. This study presents a rare example of symbiosis involving direct food provisioning. Understanding such behaviors not only advances ecological and biological research but also contributes to the development of conservation strategies for species at risk of extinction.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Ecological Complexity: Gobyshrimp mutualism: Costs and benefits of obligate versus facultative strategiesScientific Reports: Active provisioning of food to host sea anemones by anemonefishHaving worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When shes not immersed in a popular science book, youll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.

With a singular, long, spiraled tusk, narwhals really are the unicorns of the sea. The tusk, which is actually an elongated tooth, is mainly found in males and can grow up to 10 feet long. Many researchers believe that narwhals use the tusks in mating displays, though due to limited field observation, there is still much to learn about narwhals.A new study published in Frontiers in Marine Science used drones to monitor narwhals in the wild. With this footage, researchers may have a better understanding of this incredible arctic whale and what they use their tusks for.Narwhal Behavior From AboveFor this study, an international research team from Florida Atlantic Universitys Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans, and Inuit communities in Nunavut, in Canadas High Arctic, captured drone video of narwhals using their tusks against Arctic char, a large, salmon-like fish.The video shows narwhals using their tusks to jab and stun the fish, which could indicate how narwhals interact with their prey. The drone captured 17 unique narwhal behaviors, including how they interacted with other animals, such as avian competition.Other behaviors include what researchers consider as the first evidence of narwhals playing, more specifically, exploratory playing. The footage may have also given the researchers more of an insight into a narwhals social learning and personality differences.Narwhals are known for their tusking behavior, where two or more of them simultaneously raise their tusks almost vertically out of the water, crossing them in what may be a ritualistic behavior to assess a potential opponents qualities or to display those qualities to potential mates, said Greg OCorry-Crowe, a research professor at FAU Harbor Branch and a National Geographic Explorer and senior author of the study in a press release. But now we know that narwhal tusks have other uses, some quite unexpected, including foraging, exploration and play.Nimble NarwhalsBesides certain behaviors, the research team also noted that narwhals were especially dextrous when it came to maneuvering their tusks. As narwhals are hunting fish, they could quickly and precisely adjust their tusks to accommodate their prey moving or use their tusks to manipulate which direction a fish would go.I have been studying narwhal for over a decade and have always marveled at their tusks, said Cortney Watt, a research scientist and team lead at Fisheries and Oceans Canada and co-author of the study, in a press release. To observe them using their tusks for foraging and play is remarkable. This unique study where we set up a remote field camp and spent time filming narwhal with drones is yielding many interesting insights and is providing a birds eye view of their behavior that we have never seen before.A Changing ArcticSeeing how narwhals interact with other native Arctic species begged the question of how they could interact with new species in the Arctic as climate change continues, especially if that means fewer food resources.To understand how narwhals are being affected by and adapting to the changing Arctic, field studies using innovative, non-invasive tools like drones are essential to observe them in their natural environment without disturbing them, said OCorry-Crowe in a press release.Drones provide a unique, real-time view of their behavior, helping scientists gather crucial data on how narwhals are responding to shifts in ice patterns, prey availability, and other environmental changes. Such studies are key to understanding the impact of global warming on these elusive animals, OCorry-Crowe concluded in a press release.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Frontiers in Marine Science. Use of tusks by narwhals, Monodon monoceros, in foraging, exploratory, and play behaviorA graduate of UW-Whitewater, Monica Cull wrote for several organizations, including one that focused on bees and the natural world, before coming to Discover Magazine. Her current work also appears on her travel blog and Common State Magazine. Her love of science came from watching PBS shows as a kid with her mom and spending too much time binging Doctor Who.

Polar bear cubs are incredibly cute and amazingly elusive. Their mothers dig dens under the snow in remote areas. Protecting cubs is key to the species survival. Under half of all polar bear cubs make it to adulthood.To help understand the act of denning essential to the species survival a team of scientists for the first time combined satellite tracking collars on mother bears with remote cameras aimed at the bears snow lairs. They observed bears near Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago that straddles the Arctic and Atlantic oceans.The team of researchers released video footage capturing almost a decade of the small white creatures arctic frolics, providing a rare look at how polar bear cubs behave when emerging from their dens. The footage helped scientists better understand the timing and behavior of the cubs emergence from their dens in a Journal of Wildlife Management study.Essential Insight to Polar Bear's SurvivalSuch insight is important to help protect the animals habitat as industries expand into the arctic. Polar bear mothers are having increasing difficulties reproducing due to climate-driven changes, and are likely to face further challenges with the expansion of the human footprint in the Arctic, Louise Archer, a research fellow at the University of Toronto, Scarborough and lead author of the report, said in a press release. Were excited to introduce new tools to monitor bears during this vulnerable time and to gain insight into their behavior across the Arctic, so that we can work to protect cubs and therefore the species.While every den told its own story, scientists analyzing the footage found some commonalities. First, cubs emerged earlier than the scientists expected, based on previous records. If this marks a trend rather than an aberration, it could have consequences for cub survival.Polar Bear NecessitiesThe recording also revealed the degree to which cubs depend on their mothers. Video showed that the cubs emerged alone from their dens only 5 percent of the time. The Svalbard polar bear mothers also stuck by their offspring for an average of 2.5 years.The scientists also noted some behaviors they deemed important but differed from animal to animal. The amount of time cubs spent outside their dens varied from minutes to hours. Some mothers also switched dens and moved their families.Polar bears typically give birth around New Years Day to blind, hairless cubs weighing in at around one pound. The cubs grow to about 20 times their birthweight by spring, due to high fat content in their mothers milk. They leave their dens between February and April, depending on location and temperature.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Journal of Wildlife Management. Monitoring phenology and behavior of polar bears at den emergence using cameras and satellite telemetryBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

In 2025, Dry January got a boost from the Surgeon General: an advisory about alcohols role in cancer and a warning about the risks of drinking.Alcohol consumption, the report stated, is the third leading preventable cause of cancer in the United States, after tobacco and obesity, increasing the risk of cancer in at least seven sites: mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus, breast, liver, and colon.With the advisory drawing our attention to the issue, its a good time to take a look at the connection between alcohol and cancer so we can make informed decisions about drinking.How Alcohol Causes CancerAlcohol does its damage in several ways. First, the breakdown of alcohol (ethanol) in the body produces acetaldehyde, a toxic chemical that damages both DNA and proteins.Alcohol also generates what scientists call reactive oxygen species you may know them as free radicals. They are unstable molecules that contain oxygen, which can react with other molecules. A buildup of these can damage DNA, RNA, and proteins and can contribute to the development of cancer.Alcohol can also increase blood levels of estrogen, a hormone that fuels some breast cancers. And last, but by no means least, alcohol can dissolve some other carcinogens, such as particles from tobacco smoke and pollution, making it easier for the body to absorb them. This increases the risk of mouth and throat cancers especially.Even Moderate Drinking Could Carry Cancer Risk For many years, weve heard that moderate drinking, especially red wine, is good for cardiovascular health. Recently, however, that thinking has been questioned. In 2018, The Lancet published research using 26 years of global data in an attempt to determine how much alcohol is safe.Though the study found that alcohol provided some protection from ischemic heart disease and diabetes, the benefits were outweighed by the risk of cancer. The researchers famously concluded that the safest level of drinking is none.Wei Zheng, a cancer epidemiologist at Vanderbilt University Medical Center, agrees with that conclusion. Zheng says that in the last five to seven years, more careful studies have found that moderate drinking provides no cardiovascular benefits, while weve known about the association between alcohol and cancer for over 20 years.The Surgeon Generals report shows that even moderate drinking one drink per day for women and two drinks per day for men still carries a lot of risk for cancer, Zheng says.Alcohol Consumption Nuances Meanwhile, the U.S. is gearing up to revise its dietary recommendations. To aid with this decision, the National Academies of Medicine (NAM) undertook a review of the evidence for the benefits and harms of moderate drinking. Its findings are somewhat more nuanced.The analysis did find that women who drink moderately have a 10 percent higher risk of breast cancer than do non-drinkers. Women who drink on the higher end of the moderate range had an even higher risk.On the other hand, the NAM report drew no conclusions about the risk of colorectal cancer for moderate drinkers, nor was it able to establish an association between moderate drinking and oral, pharyngeal, esophageal, or laryngeal cancers. (It did find, however, that when you get beyond moderate drinking, the risks increase.) On top of that, the report concluded (with moderate certainty) that when compared with never drinking, moderate alcohol consumption is associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular mortality in both men and women.Why the differences? For starters, the connection between alcohol consumption and health is very difficult to study. Other lifestyle factors can muddy the waters. For example, many moderate drinkers eat well and exercise regularly, habits which are known to lower risk.At the same time, conditions such as obesity can increase risk. Also, many past studies have relied on self-reporting, and people are known to underestimate, intentionally or not, how much they drink. The result is that its fiendishly difficult for researchers to adjust for all these factors.To Drink or Not To Drink When deciding whether to drink and how much, here are a few things to keep in mind.As the Surgeon Generals report explains, the increases in risk described in the report are relative risks. Relative risk is the proportional chance of an outcome occurring for one group (e.g., those who drink alcohol) as compared to another group (e.g., those who do not drink alcohol). It is important to understand that a large change in relative risk may represent only a small change in absolute risk, the report stated.Also, drinking is not the only factor that increases cancer risk; so does obesity, a sedentary lifestyle, and a family history of cancer. In other words, your mileage may vary depending on other risk factors.The current U.S. guidelines recommend two drinks a day or fewer for men and one drink or fewer a day for women. If youre not willing to give up alcohol completely, and most people arent, following these guidelines is probably the best strategy.If you drink, drink as little as possible, says Zheng, noting that the more you drink, the greater your risk. He also adds that other healthy lifestyle habits, while not eliminating the risk posed by alcohol, can also reduce your overall cancer risk.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:U.S. Public Health Service. Surgeon Generals 2025 AdvisoryRethinking Drinking. What are the U.S. Guidelines for Drinking?Avery Hurt is a freelance science journalist. In addition to writing for Discover, she writes regularly for a variety of outlets, both print and online, including National Geographic, Science News Explores, Medscape, and WebMD. Shes the author of Bullet With Your Name on It: What You Will Probably Die From and What You Can Do About It, Clerisy Press 2007, as well as several books for young readers. Avery got her start in journalism while attending university, writing for the school newspaper and editing the student non-fiction magazine. Though she writes about all areas of science, she is particularly interested in neuroscience, the science of consciousness, and AIinterests she developed while earning a degree in philosophy.

Giant panda bears evolved away from other bear species about 20 million years ago. Though they have similar characteristics, like body shape and digestive system, they greatly differ in preferred diets. Most bear species will happily feast on meat, fish, and berries, while pandas tend to stick to bamboo.A new study published in Frontiers in Veterinary Science points out that pandas have evolved in specific ways to make eating bamboo easier, including a pseudo thumb for holding bamboo and flatter teeth for chewing it. The study set out to determine why pandas evolved to be more herbivorous when they have the system to be carnivorous. They answer, they found, may lay within the bamboo itself.Pandas and Tasty BambooThere are over 1,000 species of bamboo, though pandas only snack on about 25 of them. The reedy, tree-like grass is a pandas primary food source, especially the shoots. However, because bamboo has little protein, pandas can eat up to 12 hours a day, consuming roughly 26 to 84 pounds of the plant.Within bamboo, as within all living organisms, is DNA and RNA. DNA stores genetic cell information, while RNA transfers it. They also have microRNAs (miRNA), or small non-coding RNAs that help with gene expression. According to the study, miRNA from plants can be absorbed through food.With this information, the research team wanted to determine if absorbing this miRNA could regulate gene expression and aid pandas in adapting to consuming bamboo as a regular food source.We showed that plant-derived miRNAs are present in the blood of giant pandas, said Feng Li, a researcher at China West Normal University and senior author of the study, in a press release. Our study proved that bamboo used as food for giant pandas does affect the change of giant pandas feeding habits.Studying Adaptive FoodFor this study, the research team took blood samples from seven giant pandas, including three females, three males, and one juvenile female. Within the samples, the team found 57 miRNAs that were likely from bamboo.MiRNA in bamboo can enter giant pandas bodies through diet, be absorbed by the intestine, enter the blood circulation, and then regulate when the giant pandas RNA transfers information, thus playing a role in regulating the gene expression of giant pandas, Li said in a press release.According to the press release, the results show that the miRNAs from plants can regulate different physiological processes. These processes include growth and development, behavior, immune response, and biological rhythms.MiRNA in bamboo is also involved in the regulation of smell, taste, and dopamine pathways of giant pandas, all of which are related to their feeding habits, Li said in a press release.As pandas grow and consume more bamboo, the miRNA helps the pandas adapt to the taste and smell of bamboo so that theyre able to keep eating it. Its likely why they are able to eat a more plant-based diet versus a carnivorous one.From Food to MedicineResearchers also found that there were different miRNA compositions in the blood, depending on the age and sex of the pandas.Only miRNAs that can specifically play a role in regulating gene expression can remain in the body, and those that do not play a role will be expelled, said Li in a press release.An example of this would be that miRNAs help with reproduction, so only a panda of a certain sex or age would have it.These test results are a key step in helping researchers understand how plant miRNA can transfer to animals, which may open the door to life-saving treatments of animal diseases.Plant miRNAs may also participate in regulating the animal immune system, enhancing animals disease resistance, Li added in a press release.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Frontiers in Veterinary Science. Cross-Kingdom Regulation of Gene Expression in Giant Pandas via Plant-Derived miRNAPandas International. Bamboo The Giant Diet of the Giant PandaA graduate of UW-Whitewater, Monica Cull wrote for several organizations, including one that focused on bees and the natural world, before coming to Discover Magazine. Her current work also appears on her travel blog and Common State Magazine. Her love of science came from watching PBS shows as a kid with her mom and spending too much time binging Doctor Who.

One would think that astronauts living quarters in space need to be perfectly sterilized, but it turns out that creating a "dirtier" environment with more microbes from Earth may boost their health. New research has shown that the International Space Station (ISS) is overly sterile, and while this may not sound like an issue, it carries some surprising consequences; the sterile nature of the station has led to a low diversity of microbes, which could be what is causing astronauts to develop health complications like immune dysfunction, skin rashes, and other inflammatory conditions while in space.A study recently published in the journal Cell analyzed samples that were collected by astronauts, finding inadequate microbial diversity compared to human-occupied environments on Earth. Introducing environmental microbes from Earth into the ISS, the study suggests, may help stave off health problems that are often experienced by the astronauts living there.Analyzing Bacteria on the ISSIn the study, researchers called on astronauts to swab 803 different surfaces on the ISS, which gathered 100 times more samples than previous surveys have examined. The samples returned to Earth, where they were analyzed to determine the presence of bacterial species and chemicals. The researchers then constructed 3D maps that displayed where each sample was found on the station and how the bacteria and chemicals might be interacting.The results, detailed in a statement, showed that human skin was the primary source of microbes in the ISS and that chemicals from cleaning products and disinfectants were present all throughout the station. Certain microbial communities were also present in different areas of the station the dining and food prep areas contained more food-associated microbes, while the space toilet contained more urine- and fecal-associated microbes and metabolites.The Benefits of MicrobesThe ISS, however, is missing microbes from natural environments that bolster human health. Most microbes which live all around us and even populate our own skin and gut arent out to harm humans; many actually provide health benefits like helping to digest food into nutrients and fighting diseases. Being in nature can support the positive growth of ones microbiome, the community of microorganisms that coexist with us and live inside our bodies.Compared to natural environments on Earth, where beneficial microbes reside in soil and water, the ISS lacks diverse microbial communities. The samples were more akin to those found in industrialized, isolated environments like hospitals and closed habitats.The researchers claim that introducing microbes from Earth could potentially reinforce the microbial community on the ISS without posing any hygienic risks to astronauts.Future built environments, including space stations, could benefit from intentionally fostering diverse microbial communities that better mimic the natural microbial exposures experienced on Earth, rather than relying on highly sanitized spaces, said co-first author Rodolfo Salido of the University of California, San Diego.Keeping Astronauts HealthyFuture studies will be geared toward the detection of pathogenic (or disease-spreading) microbes and signals of human health from environmental metabolites, small molecules that are products of cellular metabolism. An enhanced understanding of these factors will help scientists decide how to move forward, potentially encouraging healthier living spaces for astronauts and people working in similarly sterile places here on Earth.If we really want life to thrive outside Earth, we can't just take a small branch of the tree of life and launch it into space and hope that it will work out, said Salido. We need to start thinking about what other beneficial companions we should be sending with these astronauts to help them develop ecosystems that will be sustainable and beneficial for all.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:National Acadamies. Are all microbes dangerous?Jack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.

You may think of Vikings as warriors raiding and ransacking Medieval European villages. But this image of Viking hordes embarking on sea voyages with the sole purpose of pillaging is changing with new discoveries that reveal extensive trade networks spanning Europe and beyond.Experts are revealing entirely different relationships built on the exchange of a wide variety of goods from far away places for Viking society.Archaeological evidence reveals that materially, the Viking world was like that of the Iron Age, says Sren Michael Sindbk, an archaeologist as Aarhus University in Denmark. Despite that, it was also quite globalized, he says, with ships and traders sourcing goods from far and wide.Famous Viking PillagingThe Viking age commonly spans the 8th century to the 11th century. Raiding clearly was an important part of Viking relations with other peoples, and it became highly profitable and organized over time.Famously, the Viking period is usually marked by the raid on Lindisfarne, a small island off the northeastern coast of England, in 793. But evidence shows that decades before this violent encounter, the Vikings travelled extensively to procure valuable trade goods in the East, including silver and worked beads.With global ships and traders though, this creates a funny paradox of well-evidenced long-distance journeys in the 11th century contrasted with Viking society that was predominantly comprised of a world of villages that are spread out and not very well connected, he adds.Trading and SettlementsDuring the Viking period, raiders and traders set sail, founding numerous trading hubs and settlements across Europe. These towns became focal points for trade networks spanning many thousands of kilometres.A paper published last year, for example, suggested that Norsemen who settled on Iceland and Greenland ventured to the High Arctic in the search for valuable walrus ivory. That meant possible substantive interactions with Thule Inuit peoples as far as Canada, long before the discovery of North America by Christopher Columbus.What really surprised us was that much of the walrus ivory exported back to Europe was originating in very remote hunting grounds located deep into the High Arctic. Previously, it has always been assumed that the Norse simply hunted walrus close to their main settlements in southwest Greenland, Peter Jordan, professor of archaeology at Lund University, said in a statement.Another study, published in 2023, revealed how the important trade hub of Hedeby, in Germany, linked up with the far north of Scandinavia, bringing vast quantities of reindeer antler there as early as A.D. 800.Viking Connections Across EuropeWorkers crafted reindeer antler into goods such as combs, which were essential items during Medieval Europe, Sindbk explains. Those trade networks likely connected Viking peoples in modern countries such as Norway where reindeer dwelled in remote areas with a far larger market.There's an element of car boot sales in the Viking trade, he says. Lots of people can participate and they can bring something which is unique to their area and participate in a much wider pool of material commodities.Viking peoples also traded many other goods, including textiles woven by women, horses, pottery, silks, spices, and other items like jewelery. Their role in transporting captured and enslaved peoples from across Europe is, of course, highly distasteful in our modern age, says Sindbk.But it doesn't seem that people in the Viking period really struggled with the fact that you can trade people like you can trade livestock, says Sindbk.Viking DiplomacyThough raiding remained commonplace, so too was establishing peaceful relations to foster and maintain trade. On that front, on several occasions Viking leaders engaged in diplomatic efforts to enable trade to flourish.In fact, researchers believe that trade, not warfare, was the initial trigger behind the Viking Age.The chronology is now teaching us that we can see contacts emerging between North and Central Scandinavia and South Scandinavia and the southern North Sea area in the eighth century, says Sindbk. Today, we can sustain a narrative where the capacity to use maritime vessels to engage in long-distance trading relationships emerged first and then became a vehicle for the raids and military operations.There is still much to be discovered about the trade networks of the Viking Age. Sindbk says that for some time a focus on the luxury goods such as silver and ivory has removed attention from everyday staple items, like grain or dried cod, that medieval peoples depended on. Evidence suggests that Nordic peoples suppled cod to Europe for centuries, a practice kickstarted during the Viking Age.I think that whole middle group of lots of different materials, which were extraordinarily useful to people, but in relatively confined quantities, is where the exciting research is taking place right now, he says.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:English Heritage. The Viking Raid on LindisfarneScience Daily. The Vikings were part of a global network trading in ivory from GreenlandMuseum Lolland-Falster. Traders and marketsSlavery & Abolition. The slave markets of the Viking world: comparative perspectives on an invisible archaeologyThe Viking Herald. Free trade in the Viking Age: Diplomacy and trade agreementsUniversity of Cambridge. DNA from Viking cod bones suggests 1,000 years of European fish tradeSean Mowbray is a freelance writer based in Scotland. He covers the environment, archaeology, and general science topics. His work has also appeared in outlets such as Mongabay, New Scientist, Hakai Magazine, Ancient History Magazine, and others.

Prospecting for eggshells in Utah, 2020. (Credit: Lindsay Zanno, CC-BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), image is cropped to fit website dimensions)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsEggshells found in Utah fill a 30-million-year fossil record gap and provide a snapshot of a time when dinosaurs were migrating from Asia to North America via a land bridge, according to a paper in PLOS ONE.The fossils include eggshells from three feathered bird-like dinosaurs, two plant-eating dinosaurs, and one crocodile-like species. It is also the first new dinosaur eggshell discovery from the region in 50 years, as well as the first evidence of a crocodilian species outside of Europe.The collection of shells from Utahs Cedar Mountain from three different kinds of animals represents a wide range of creatures one of the best-preserved records of paleobiodiversity in the early Late Cretaceous worldwide, the paper says.Dinosaurs Migrating WestThat period was a particularly busy time for dinosaurs. Many species were migrating westward, via a land bridge connecting present-day Russia to Canada. The dinosaurs were possible pioneers in going West, because early humans may have crossed into North America in a similar manner millions of years later. This period of dinosaur dynamism has been labeled the Early Cretaceous Laurasian Interchange Event (EKLInE).Previous research shows that the new arrivals from Asia eventually pushed out some North American natives. Which dinosaurs appeared where and when is an important part of paleontology. At some point, dinosaur diversity peaked, but began to decline for at least two million years before the creatures went extinct. Filling in the GapsThe story the shells tell fills in a 20-million-year gap of when the egg thief oviraptorosaurs arrived in North America and a 15-million-year hole in the arrival of crocodile-like species to the continent.Eggshell data are particularly crucial to understanding broader paleoenvironmental questions, according to the paper. They provide data points beyond body fossils alone and a fascinating window into the behavioral ecology of these taxa.There is a wide diversity of dinosaur eggs, which vary by shape, size, texture, and color. One species was found to have laid 35 presumably to foil predators. The more eggs one lays, the better chance that at least one offspring will survive. Dinosaur eggs also vary in shape, size, and color. And the largest dinosaurs dont necessarily lay the biggest eggs. Examining fossilized dinosaur eggshells can help us piece together more information about the extinct creatures.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

To have a view on aliens and whether or not they exist, you have to believe in outer space in general and other planets beyond our own. So, what does this mean for ancient civilizations? How did they view outer space, the stars, and the objects that we today would refer to as unidentified aerial phenomena (unidentified anomalous phenomenonfile/UAPs)?Its all about how they viewed the universe in general, says Marcus Harmes, an associate director of research at the University of Southern Queensland, whose research is focused on the cultural history of education and popular culture.If you believe in aliens, then you have to have a belief in the possibilities of other worlds, says Harmes.Its also important to note that we only have the views of the most elite members of society because they were the only individuals at the time who could read and write and, therefore, leave their opinions behind for us to read thousands of years later.The Most Dominant Ancient ThinkersHarmes says that the most dominant ancient thinkers, Plato and Aristotle, both had views that made it impossible to believe that other planets or worlds could have existed. Aristotle said, for example, that Earth was the center of gravity and that it was the only center.These schools of thought made it impossible to imagine other worlds, says Harmes.Other Greek thinkers wrote about their perspectives on other worlds as well. Anaxagoras, a Greek philosopher who died in A.D. 428, thought that the sun was a mass of red-hot metal and that the moon and stars were fiery stones. The moon, he wrote, could have life on it. He was later exiled for his heretical views, which included presumed life in the mountains of the moon.Anaxagoras wouldnt have viewed aliens as otherworldly beings that werent like humans. Instead, it was a view that men and beasts, just like those on Earth, would also live on other planets.If there are aliens, theyre going to be aliens, but just like us, so theyre not actually aliens, says Harmes.Epicurus, an ancient Greek philosopher who died in 270 B.C., also theorized that there could be other planets like our own, with humans and beasts like us living on them.Ancients Looking Up Into the SkyThe Roman historian Livy referred to unidentified objects as a spectacle of ships gleamed in the sky." It's not clear what Livy saw in the sky when he was speculating, whether it was a meteor or some other unexplained object.Often, when the ancients looked up and saw unexplained things in the sky, they would have seen them as religious omens, depending on the prevailing religious views of the time. If they were seen just before a major battle, then they were somehow a sign from the skies as to who would prevail.These were thought of as celestial signs of fate, says Harmes.Thinkers like Anaxagoras and Epicurus looked out into the sky and saw the stars, which is why they thought there had to be something in addition to our planet. Still, it would take centuries for scientists to really look beyond Earth. It was not until the 1500s that Copernicus started publishing about the fact that Earth revolved around the sun rather than the other way around.Without this understanding, its difficult to start speculating about outer space or that there might be other planets that could have life on them. We take for granted all that science has taught us about outer space; without it, it would be hard to look beyond the planet on which we live.Article Sources:Our writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. AnaxagorasThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. EpicurusBritannica. Nicolaus CopernicusSara Novak is a science journalist based in South Carolina. In addition to writing for Discover, her work appears in Scientific American, Popular Science, New Scientist, Sierra Magazine, Astronomy Magazine, and many more. She graduated with a bachelors degree in Journalism from the Grady School of Journalism at the University of Georgia. She's also a candidate for a masters degree in science writing from Johns Hopkins University, (expected graduation 2023).

Everyone knows that maintaining a clean kitchen is essential for safe food preparation. Failing to properly sanitize utensils after use can lead to foodborne illnesses from bacterial growth. Alongside dish sponges, cutting boards particularly those used for raw meat are hotspots for bacteria.Instead of relying solely on human-devised cleaning methods to combat bacterial buildup, researchers turned to nature for solutions. They found inspiration in the antimicrobial properties of shark skin and cicada wings.Scientists from the Hopkirk Research Institute, the Food Safety Science and Research Centre, and Applied Technologies Group in New Zealand collaborated on a study that used lasers to create antibacterial surfaces. By mimicking the micro- and nanostructures of shark skin and cicada wings, they developed a novel approach to preventing bacterial adhesion. Their findings were published in the Journal of Laser Applications.Keeping Food Surfaces CleanThe study focused on Brochothrix thermosphacta and Escherichia coli (E. coli), two common meat-borne bacteria. These microbes can contaminate food, causing spoilage, off-odors, and illnesses such as gastroenteritis, which lead to diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting.Monitoring bacterial growth on kitchen surfaces is crucial not only in commercial settings but also at home. Once bacteria accumulate, they can form biofilms that are difficult to remove even from stainless steel and when using commercial antibacterial cleaners.Excessive use of antibacterial cleaning products can also disrupt the balance of beneficial bacteria on the skin and lead to irritation of the eyes, throat, and skin. Additionally, prolonged exposure has been linked to headaches and potential long-term respiratory issues.Read More: How to Avoid Food-Borne IllnessBiomimicry in the Lab (and the Kitchen)To address this challenge, researchers examined how nature has evolved to resist bacterial colonization.With billions of years of evolutionary refinement, nature serves as a vast research and development laboratory. Scientists, engineers, and designers have long drawn inspiration from biological organisms and processes to drive innovation. This approach, known as biomimicry, applies natures strategies to solve human design challenges across fields such as architecture, medicine, communication, and energy.Biomimicry has already influenced many everyday products. Raincoats take inspiration from the water-repellent properties of duck feathers, while sleeping bags and insulated jackets mimic how birds use down feathers to retain warmth. Japans Shinkansen bullet trains were modeled after the streamlined beak of the kingfisher to reduce noise and improve efficiency.The micro- and nanoscale textures of shark skin and cicada wings have previously driven technological advancements due to their superhydrophobic, self-cleaning, antifogging, and antimicrobial properties. These innovations have led to improvements in medical devices, fabrics, and wind turbine coatings.Laser Surface TexturingThe research team successfully created textured surfaces that replicate the micro- and nanoscale patterns found in shark skin and cicada wings. These surfaces inhibit bacterial attachment, growth, and proliferation by using ultrafast lasers to modify the metal at a microscopic level.By designing textures that correspond to the specific shapes of bacterial cells, researchers can make it significantly harder for microbes to adhere to surfaces. Additionally, they are developing machine learning models to help manufacturers optimize and automate laser surface texturing.Compared to some conventional approaches, laser surface texturing does not introduce non-native materials or require chemical etchants or sensitizers on treated surfaces, said study author Sebastiampillai Raymond in a press release. This could lower barriers to introducing new technology into a regulated environment and eliminates any risk of potential chemical contamination from the coating.By harnessing the power of biomimicry and laser technology, researchers are paving the way for safer, more hygienic kitchen surfaceswithout the need for chemical additives.Read More: Sustainable Architecture Takes Cues from NatureArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Advanced Materials Interfaces: Molecular and Topographical Organization: Influence on Cicada Wing Wettability and Bactericidal PropertiesBioinspiration & Biomimetics: Characterization of shark skin properties and biomimetic replicationJournal of Laser Applications: Antibacterial effectiveness of laser surface textured metal on meat-borne bacteriaHaving worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When shes not immersed in a popular science book, youll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.

The search for water on the moon is about to take a massive leap into new territory as NASAs Lunar Trailblazer orbiter and the latest Intuitive Machines lunar lander get ready to launch. These missions riding together on the same SpaceX Falcon9 rocket both aim to answer key questions about the presence of water on the moon, which has become a top priority in space exploration.The launch is scheduled for the evening of the Feb. 26, 2025 at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida. While the Lunar Trailblazer will continually orbit the moon as it charts sources of water from afar, the Intuitive Machines lander (named Athena) will touch down on the moons south pole and deploy an instrument to drill through the surface and measure water ice and gases.Mapping Water on the MoonFollowing its launch, the Lunar Trailblazer which is a small satellite will take a path assisted by the gravity of Earth, the moon, and the sun, called a low-energy transfer. Four to seven months later, it will enter the moons orbit and spend the next two years scanning the lunar landscape for signs of water.The satellite will use two instruments to make measurements: the High-resolution Volatiles and Minerals Moon Mapper (HVM3) and the Lunar Thermal Mapper (LTM). The HVM3 instrument, a shortwave infrared imaging spectrometer, will determine the form, abundance, and locations of water on the moons surface by detecting wavelengths of reflected sunlight. Meanwhile, LTM, a mid-infrared imager, will measure the moons surface temperature in the same regions HVM3 is concentrated on.The collaborative effort of the two instruments will generate detailed maps during different times of the day, which could reveal potential changes in the amount of water from day to night. Scientists hope to use this information to better understand how the lunar water cycle works in an airless environment.Drilling for AnswersTaking a different trajectory, the IM-2 mission is expected to land on the lunar south pole around March 6 after spending approximately one week in transit to the moon, according to NASA.As part of NASAs Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program, IM-2 will carry several technologies to conduct tests on the moon. The most prominent of these payloads is PRIME-1, a NASA investigation with two instruments that will aid the search for water: TRIDENT (The Regolith and Ice Drill for Exploring New Terrain), a drill that can extract lunar soil, and MSOLO, a mass spectrometer that will examine the soil samples for water ice.Why Is Lunar Water So Important?The pursuit of water on the moon has accelerated ever since water molecules were discovered in lunar soil by the Indian Space Research Organization's Chandrayaan-1 probe in 2008. In the following years, space agencies raced to uncover additional evidence of lunar water, which comes in the form of water ice embedded within the soil.Water ice is thought to primarily occur in the permanently shadowed polar regions of the Moon, but in 2020, water molecules were detected in a sunlit portion of the Moon by the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), a joint project between NASA and the German Aerospace Center.Scientists have sought to understand what exactly caused the existence of water ice on the moon. Multiple theories have been raised, from comet impacts to solar wind interacting with the moon to produce hydrogen atoms that combine with existing oxygen atoms under the lunar surface.This mystery hasnt been solved quite yet, but the Lunar Trailblazer and IM-2 missions may bring scientists one step closer to the answers theyre chasing. The outcome of the missions could also spark hope for future space missions, as the presence of lunar water ice may eventually translate to drinking water, breathable air, and fuel for astronauts. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:NASA. Lunar Trailblazer FactsNASA Jet Propulsion Labrotory. NASA Sets Coverage for Intuitive Machines Next Commercial Moon LaunchJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.