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  • The Key Ingredients to Healthy Romantic Relationships
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    It can be hard to keep up all that sugar and spice in your relationship. We get busy with jobs and kids and endless to-do lists, but according to experts, you get what you give when it comes to your relationship.Being kind and loving on a regular basis is one of the most important components of a healthy relationship, says Jacqueline Olds, M.D., an associate professor of clinical psychiatry at Harvard Medical School and co-author of Marriage In Motion: The Natural Ebb And Flow Of Lasting Relationships. You want to be practicing the art of being loving rather than always waiting to see if the other person is being loving enough, says Olds.Its being loving yourself rather than expecting it from your partner that makes a relationship feel more robust. Love is a practice, and to keep it as a part of your relationship, you have to be participating in that practice.Think in the LongtermIn modern times, we go through the trouble of having huge and extravagant weddings where we promise to love each other forever in front of family and friends. But every time we have a huge fight, we question the relationship and whether we should even be in it.Its as if we hadnt made this promise in front of a huge group of witnesses, says Olds.Divorce shouldnt be something you consider every time you have a really bad fight because relationships ebb and flow, and thats just part of life. Life is messy, and so are our relationships sometimes.Having a strong sexual relationship is also helpful, says Olds, because its one of the few ways that we can have a reset. The release of hormones like oxytocin and vasopressin during sex is important for helping, especially women, feel more connected.According to Harvard Medical School, oxytocin, known also as the love hormone, provokes feelings of contentment, calmness, and security, which are often associated with mate bonding.Other forms of intimacy, like holding hands and cuddling in bed, are also important. All of these things are incredibly important, and they have hormonal correlates that lead to feelings of well-being, says Olds. With aging, as couples have less sex, they can maintain a great relationship through these other forms of intimacy.Have Fun Even When Life Gets More DifficultWith all the seriousness and stress that can be a part of daily life these days, your romantic partner should be your solace at the end of the day, says Jaime Bronstein, licensed relationship therapist and author of MAN*ifesting. Your person should feel like home to you, she says.Avoid judging your partner and expect the same from them. This reduces relationship pitfalls like resentment and contempt. It doesnt mean that your partner is perfect because two imperfect people can be perfect for each other, Bronstein says. But its hard to be connected if youre constantly judging someone.Keep things fresh by going on dates to new places. Dont just go to the same restaurants, choose new places with menus that you havent explored, says Bronstein. If you like to go on walks together, choose a new route that you dont normally take.Remaining curious about one another and your life together keeps things exciting even after years of marriage. You may think you know everything about your spouse, but you dont, so keep asking questions and keep listening to the answers.Olds says that you should also set boundaries with your children. They shouldnt be around all the time or getting in your bed early in the morning. Kids used to play together outside of the view of their parents so that parents had time together alone. And its this precious alone time that you need in order to reconnect and water the plant that is your relationship.Read More: Why Are We Addicted to Love?Article Sources:Our writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Harvard Medical School. Love and the BrainJaime Bronstein, Licensed Relationship Therapist and Author of MAN*ifestingJacqueline Olds, MD, an associate professor of clinical psychiatry at Harvard Medical School and co-author of Marriage In Motion: The Natural Ebb And Flow Of Lasting RelationshipsSara Novak is a science journalist based in South Carolina. In addition to writing for Discover, her work appears in Scientific American, Popular Science, New Scientist, Sierra Magazine, Astronomy Magazine, and many more. She graduated with a bachelors degree in Journalism from the Grady School of Journalism at the University of Georgia. She's also a candidate for a masters degree in science writing from Johns Hopkins University, (expected graduation 2023).
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  • 149-Million-Year-Old Fossil Pushes Origins of Birds to the Jurassic Period
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    Figure 4. Life reconstruction of the Jurassic bird Baminornis zhenghensis from the Zhenghe Fauna. (Credit: Image by Zhao Chuang)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsA recent fossil find fills in a glaring prehistoric bird gap. The Jurassic period claims Archaeopteryx (sometimes called adeinonychosaurian dinosaur), which, despite their feathered wings, appear more dinosaur like. Meanwhile, most Cretaceous avian progenitors appear more birdlike, with short tails ending in a compound bone called a pygostyle.A team from the Chinese Academy of Sciences report in the journal Nature found a specimen that fits between those proto birds. This finding suggests that the creatures we know as birds or at least winged creatures that were more bird than dino emerged 20 million years earlier than previously thought.Early Bird Fossil DiscoveryThe team, led by Wang Min, discovered two bird fossils in Jurassic-era rocks in southeast China. Because the rocks in which the fossils were encased date back 149 million years, the fossils show that birds started diversifying away from dinosaurs by the end of the Jurassic period.It can be difficult to identify where, when, why, and how birds began to differentiate. Bird or birdlike fossils from the Jurassic period are relatively rare and often incomplete.Despite Archaeopteryxs feathered wings, it closely resembled non-avialan dinosaurs, notably due to its long, reptilian tail, which separates it from both Cretaceous and more modern birds.Different ClassificationSome paleontologists have questioned whether Archaeopteryx should be considered a bird at all classifying it as a deinonychosaurian dinosaur, a sister group to birds still considered more dinosaur-like. That reclassification caused some paleontologists to wonder whether real Jurassic birds exist.The new findings answer that question with a resounding yes. One of the two fossils, which they named Baminornis zhenghensis, possess bird-like shoulder and pelvic girdles. It also has a short tail. That feature connects it solidly to contemporary birds, because the tail terminates with a compound pygostyle. Although a handlike structure still connects it to dinos, the other features make it more bird than reptile.Rewriting the RecordThis finding rewrites the evolutionary history of birds. "Previously, the oldest record of short-tailed birds is from the Early Cretaceous, Wang said in a press release. Baminornis zhenghensis is the sole Jurassic and the oldest short-tailed bird yet discovered, pushing back the appearance of this derived bird feature by nearly 20 million years.The second fossil is less complete. Although one feature resembles that of other Cretaceous birds, the poor preservation and lack of bones kept the researchers from classifying it as a new species.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In
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  • A Rapidly Warming Earth May Breach the Paris Agreement Within the Decade
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    As global temperatures climb higher year after year, the Earth heads toward a new era marked by a prospective breach of the Paris Agreement. Signed in 2016, the international climate treaty set a limit to keep global surface temperatures from rising 1.5 degrees Celsius (C) (2.7 Fahrenheit) above pre-industrial levels, but two new studies warn that the world may be on its way to failing this critical test.Recent temperature data reflect a turn for the worse, as 2024 became the first year in which the average global temperature surpassed 1.5 degrees C. The two new studies, both published in Nature Climate Change, were motivated by this tipping point to determine whether the 2024 data foreshadows an impending violation of the Paris Agreement limit; the simulations referenced in both studies show that it is a real possibility.A Troubling PatternIts impossible to say that the Paris Agreement limit has been broken yet since it is based on the running average of global surface temperature, measured in 20-year periods. One year of 1.5 degrees C above pre-industrial levels, therefore, does not mean the limit is passed, as factors like an El Nio event a natural climate pattern that results in the Pacific Oceans warming impact yearly data. However, it could still represent the start of long-term warming.One of the studies, based out of Europe, examined warming trends in the past to see how the world met previous temperature thresholds 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, and 1.0 degrees C above pre-industrial levels accordingly. The studys authors found that the first single year when each of these thresholds was exceeded consistently fell within the first 20-year periods that reached the same temperature thresholds.This pattern implies that since 2024 reached an average of 1.5 degrees C above pre-industrial levels, we may have already entered a 20-year warming period that could eventually mark a breach of the Paris Agreement. If this holds true, the impacts of a world that will be averaging 1.5 degrees C warmer could soon materialize. There is a chance to reduce the probability of warming above 1.5 degrees C in the coming years, but this would require stringent mitigation efforts across the globe, the studys authors state.The Start of Long-Term WarmingThe other study, based out of Canada, involved a similar method of considering historical data as a way to anticipate future global warming. It noted that June 2024 was the 12th consecutive month of global surface temperatures reaching above the 1.5 degrees C benchmark (but again, this does not indicate a breach of the Paris Agreement yet).Taking into account the 12 consecutive months of temperatures above the 1.5 degrees C threshold, the simulation in this study revealed that a short-term crossing of 1.5 degrees C in June 2024 means that a long-term crossing would probably occur before 2029.Waiting on Climate Plans The mounting threat of climate change became even more apparent in 2024, with the Paris Agreement constantly looming as a reminder that mitigation efforts need to ramp up. However, concerns have been raised about the priority of climate agendas across the world.Recently, out of the 195 parties that signed the Paris Agreement, only 13 submitted emissions-cutting plans (nationally determined contributions or NDCs) by the February 10th deadline. The parties that have completed these pledges meant to address how nations will cut emissions by 2035 include Brazil, the United Arab Emirates, the U.K., and the U.S. Those that missed the deadline include some of the worlds largest economies, notably China, India, Russia, and the European Union.The two recent studies forecasting a warming future serve as a wake-up call for nations to stick to ambitious climate plans and strive for immediate cuts in emissions. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:United Nations. The Paris AgreementNature Climate Change. Twelve months at 1.5 C signals earlier than expected breach of Paris Agreement thresholdUnited Nations Climate Change. The Paris Agreement and NDCsJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.
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  • From a Healthy Heart to Improved Mood, Here's How Water Gives Your Body a Boost
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    The human body is, on average, 60 percent water. So it makes sense that water is doing something important in there. And indeed, water is necessary for almost all physiological processes.In the past few years, research on hydration has shifted from studying the role of hydration in athletic performance to waters role in overall health. And scientists are finding some interesting connections.Water Is Essential to the BodyThere is evidence that insufficient hydration can cause inflammation, stiffen arteries, and interfere with blood pressure control (causing blood pressure to swing wildly from too high to too low). According to a study published in 2022 in the European Heart Journal, staying well-hydrated during middle age can reduce the risk of heart problems later in life.The brain needs water, too. While the research on the cognitive effects of mild dehydration is still sparse and somewhat inconsistent, an increasing amount of evidence shows that the bodys hydration level influences cognitive performance, working memory, and mood.Adam Seal, a scientist who studies hydration physiology and diabetes biomarkers at California Polytechnic, is one of the researchers working to understand how water or a lack of it affects our health.If you dont drink enough water, your blood volume decreases, and the concentration of your blood, specifically your plasma, increases. Your brain responds by secreting the hormone vasopressin. Vasopressin, sometimes called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), helps regulate the amount of water in your body. Vasopressin, he explains, has a lot of downstream effects.Seal and colleagues are discovering that, among other things, vasopressin may act on the liver and the pancreas, setting off a cascade of events leading to problems with glucose regulation.Were certainly not saying that drinking water is going to cure diabetes, he says. But its a low-cost and easy lifestyle change that could potentially have an effect.When you add that to keeping your heart strong, your emotions steady, and your memory sharp, who doesnt want to make sure they get enough water? But how much is enough?How Much Water Do You Need?You may have heard that you need to drink eight glasses of water a day. But that advice is kind of meaningless. Whats the definition of a glass? Fortunately, the National Academy of Medicine (NAM) offers more specific recommendations.According to NAM, on average, men need about three liters of water a day, and women need about two. Thats for plain water, explains Seal. But some of your water comes from food. Melons, lettuce, tomatoes, cucumbers, celery, and spinach are all high-water foods that also offer other important nutrients.Does coffee count toward your fluid intake? After all, its mostly water. The surprising, happy answer is yes! Caffeine is a diuretic, explains Seal. But, his research has shown that it takes much more caffeine than you get in a typical cup of coffee to disturb your fluid balance.Alcohol is another known diuretic. But again, though alcohol does have a dehydrating effect, The good news is that a beer, say, still has a high water content, says Seal, so that offsets some of the dehydration effect. Alcohol is not likely to dehydrate you as long as you dont overdrink.How Do You Know If Youre Getting Enough Water?A good indicator that youre getting enough water is the color of your urine. When youre dehydrated, your urine will be darker. If its clear or pale yellow, then youre probably doing just fine. Another good indicator is how often you urinate. More water, more trips to the loo. And thats a good thing!Generally, thirst is a reliable indicator of when you need to drink, says Seal. However, when youre exercising, that doesnt work so well. Seals research has found that were pretty lousy at estimating how much we need to drink during exercise. So when youre at the gym, on the field, or on the courts, make sure to take regular water breaks, even if you dont feel like you need to. The same goes for any time youre out in the heat.So, do your body a favor. Go, drink some water, and why not have a juicy salad to go with it?Read More: Can Drinking Water Really Help You Lose Weight?Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:National Academy of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and SulfateAdam Seal, Assistant Professor at California PolytechnicEuropean Heart Journal. Middle age serum sodium levels in the upper part of normal range and risk of heart failureNutrients. Hydration Status and Cardiovascular FunctionMedical News Today. What is the average percentage of water in the human body?Avery Hurt is a freelance science journalist. In addition to writing for Discover, she writes regularly for a variety of outlets, both print and online, including National Geographic, Science News Explores, Medscape, and WebMD. Shes the author of Bullet With Your Name on It: What You Will Probably Die From and What You Can Do About It, Clerisy Press 2007, as well as several books for young readers. Avery got her start in journalism while attending university, writing for the school newspaper and editing the student non-fiction magazine. Though she writes about all areas of science, she is particularly interested in neuroscience, the science of consciousness, and AIinterests she developed while earning a degree in philosophy.
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  • A New Fish Species Seems to Wear Red Face Paint, Similar to a Studio Ghibli Character
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    After noticing a fish with striking red stripes under its eyes, Chinese scientists knew theyd identified a new species. The fish a species of tilefish appears to be wearing red face paint and thus has been named after San, a character from Princess Mononoke, a Studio Ghibli film.With this rare find, researchers are hoping to learn more about this genus and further investigate the species genetic diversity.The findings were recently published in ZooKeys.Finding a new species in this group is a rare and fortunate event, especially one as distinctive as Branchiostegus sanae, said Haochen Huang, lead author of the new study, in a press release.A New Species DiscoveredThe facial markings of Branchiostegus sanae resemble the markings on San's face in Princess Mononoke.Credit: (Fish: Branchiostegus sanae. Huang et al. CC-BY 4.0 Illustration: San from Princess Mononoke 1997 Hayao Miyazaki/Studio Ghibli, ND)While searching through online fish markets, members of the research team noticed a fish with strange red marks on their faces. The fish in question was a type of tilefish, deep-sea dwellers found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. According to the study, this fish was caught in the South China Sea.Having never seen a fish with such markings, the research team from the South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Science, Zhejiang University, and Ocean University of China, performed a genetic analysis on it to determine that it was indeed a new species in the family Branchiostegidae.The team then named the fish Branchiostegus sanae due to the resemblance to San from Princess Mononoke.Read More: Do Fish Feel Pain?The Rare Branchiostegus sanaeTilefish are an important food source for people. Some live at depths of nearly 2,000 feet and make their homes in silty holes. Though they are a common food source, according to the study, they have a low genetic diversity.The family Branchiostegidae only has 31 species, 19 of which are in the genus Branchiostegus. Since 1990, science has only identified three species of Branchiostegus.The research team has preserved several B. sanae specimens in marine biological locations for further study.The Princess and the FishThe term "Mononoke" comes from Japanese folklore, describing supernatural spirits. According to the press release, this term relates to the phrase Chinese anglers use to describe B. sanae Ghost Horsehead Fish.In Princess Mononoke, San is a young woman raised by wolves after being abandoned by her human parents. She sees herself as a part of the forest and fights to protect it, Huang said in a press release. The film delves into the complex relationship between humans and nature, promoting a message of harmonious coexistence between the two: something we hope to echo through this naming.While fishing is vital to the economy and acts as an important food source, fish are also vital to the ocean's ecosystem. And further research and study, especially of this species, could help preserve them for the future. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:A graduate of UW-Whitewater, Monica Cull wrote for several organizations, including one that focused on bees and the natural world, before coming to Discover Magazine. Her current work also appears on her travel blog and Common State Magazine. Her love of science came from watching PBS shows as a kid with her mom and spending too much time binging Doctor Who.
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  • How Does Stress Impact Listening? For Mice, They Don't Hear as Well
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    We process our world differently when were stressed out, and so, too, do mice. According to a new paper in PLOS Biology, mice perceive sounds in a different way when theyve been subjected to repeated stressors, responding to some louder sounds as if they were softer. We found that repetitive stress alters sound processing, the study authors stated in their paper. These alterations in auditory processing culminated in perceptual shifts, particularly a reduction in loudness perception.Read More: How Do Other Animals See the World?Brain Processing Under Chronic StressThough an abundance of research has recognized that chronic stress impacts our complex cognition, impairing processes like learning and memory, far fewer studies have looked into the impacts of chronic stress on our senses. There remains a notable gap, the study authors stated, in our understanding of its influence on fundamental cortical functions, such as sensory processing.In fact, of the few studies that have tested how chronic stress shapes the perception of stimuli, most have tested how chronic stress shapes the perception of negative stimuli things as terrible as pain and unpleasant smells. There is little research on how our brains process neutral sounds under chronic stress, said study author Jennifer Resnik, an assistant professor at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Israel, in a press release.To tease out the impacts of stress on neutral sensory processing, the study authors turned to mice. Confining the mice to a small space for thirty minutes a day over the course of a week and then assessing their responses to sound with a behavioral task, the team revealed that the mices perception of loudness was reduced, as seen by their tendency to treat some louder sounds as softer sounds.Our research suggests that repeated stress doesnt just impact complex tasks like learning and memory, Resnik said in the release. It may also alter how we respond to everyday neutral stimuli.Read More: What Animals Can Sense That Humans Can'tQuiet for a MouseIt isnt a simple task to figure out how loud a sound seems to a mouse. To arrive at their results, the study authors trained mice to identify three types of sounds low-intensity (at 40 to 45 dB), mid-intensity (at 50 to 70 dB), and high-intensity (at 75 to 80 dB) as soft or loud by licking one of two water spouts, a loud spout and a soft spout, in the lab. If the mice correctly identified a low-intensity sound as soft by licking the soft spout or a high-intensity sound as loud by licking the loud spout, they were rewarded with a taste of sweetened water. They were also rewarded with a taste whether they identified a mid-intensity sound as soft or loud. Testing the mice before their week of stress and after, the study authors found that the animals tendency to identify low-intensity sounds as soft and high-intensity sounds as loud remained the same, though their labelling of mid-intensity sounds changed. Impaired by stress, they were more likely to report mid-intensity sounds as soft than loud, indicating their reduced perception of loudness.While the stress didnt alter what the mice were able to hear, as seen in the activity in their auditory brainstems, it did alter their perception of what they heard. Indeed, brain images of the mice showed that their altered perception correlates to increased activity in some sensory cells and decreased activity in others a unique combination that could connect to the overall softening of their sound perception.Additional research could catch similar sound perception changes in other chronically stressed animals. Until then, another press release states that the results reveal that a stressed-out mouse is a less sensitive one, at least in terms of neutral sounds. Our findings provide insight into a possible mechanism by which repetitive stress alters sensory processing and behavior, the study authors concluded in their paper, challenging the idea that stress primarily modulates emotionally charged stimuli.Read More: What Are the Loudest Animals in the World?Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Frontiers in Neuroscience. Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress Alters Odor Hedonics and Adult Olfactory Neurogenesis in MiceSam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.
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  • Climate Change Wiped Out These 5 Powerful Ancient Civilizations
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    Until recently, civilization (as a whole) had never endured severe climate change at global scale. Individual cultures, on the other hand, have confronted regional climate shifts time and again, and for the people involved, theyve been no less devastating. In fact, many of those cultures collapsed in the turmoil of fluctuating temperatures and dwindling precipitation (and, surely, other political and economic factors). From the deserts of the Middle East to the rainforest of Central America, just about every corner of our planet has been struck by climate-related disaster at one point or another in human history. Here are some of the casualties starting with the worlds first empire.1. Akkadian EmpireAkkadian Empire (Credit: matrioshka/Shutterstock)The Akkadian Empire formed 4,300 years ago, when Sargon the Great consolidated the city-states of ancient Mesopotamia under his rule. It extended along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers from the Persian Gulf into modern Turkey. But within two centuries of its founding, around 2150 B.C.E., the empire suddenly collapsed. In recent decades, some archaeologists have suspected the Akkadians succumbed to drought. The Curse of Akkad, a contemporary poem that purportedly tells of the empires decline, says the large arable tracts yielded no grain, the inundated tracts yielded no fish, the irrigated orchards yielded no syrup or wine, the thick clouds did not rain.Then, in 2018, paleoclimatologists discovered new evidence in an unlikely place: northern Irans Gol-e-Zard Cave, hundreds of miles away. It may be distant, but the cave lies directly downwind of Akkadian territory, and the composition of its stalagmites offers a precise record of dry spells in the region higher magnesium levels indicate dusty periods, once of which coincides perfectly with the fall of the empire.2. Angkor(Credit: karinkamon/Shutterstock)The crown jewel of the Khmer Empire, Angkor flourished in what is now Cambodia between the 9th and 15th centuries C.E. Its ornate, sprawling temple complex makes it a popular modern tourist destination, but in its heyday the city was equally remarkable for its sophisticated system of reservoirs and canals. Angkor is often called the hydraulic city.As in all Southeast Asia, however, water cuts both ways: Angkor was highly vulnerable to summer monsoons. In 2010, climate researchers reconstructed centuries of the regions climate history based on tree rings, a good proxy for rainfall. They concluded that, around the turn of the 15th century, seasonal flooding ravaged Angkors infrastructure, which was vulnerable to the risk of massive, unrecoverable damage.It gets worse these catastrophically wet years came during a decades-long drought. With crop productivity already suffering, and with its water management system in disarray, Angkor was less and less able to support agriculture. By 1431, the weakened city was overcome by invaders from the Siamese kingdom. 3. Maya(Credit: ecstk22/Shutterstock)The Maya civilization appeared in 2600 B.C.E., and persisted for more than three millennia before collapsing in what has been called one of the most obvious and spectacular examples of political and societal disintegration. In little more than a century, between 800 C.E. and 950 C.E., the Maya abandoned many of their great cities, and their cultural activity ground to a halt.To be clear, they didnt fully vanish 8 million of them live in Central America to this day and scholars have long disagreed about the nature of the collapse. The archaeologist Edward Wyllys Andrews IV went so far as to say that in my belief no such thing happened. Nevertheless, over the past few decades, climatological research has confirmed what made this era so tumultuous for the Maya: a megadrought, spanning the 9th to 11th centuries. These dry cycles were, as one team of researchers wrote, the most severe and frequent in Maya prehistory. By 950 C.E., the magnificent pyramids and palaces of Tikal, Copan, and other urban centers were left in ruins.4. NorseNorse ruins on Llanddwyn Island (Credit: Gail Johnson/Shutterstock)In 985 C.E., according to the medieval Icelandic sagas, the first Vikings first sailed to Greenland. Unluckily for them, theyd chosen an atypically balmy moment to take up residence so near the Arctic Circle. They established themselves there at the height of the Medieval Warm Period, during which rising temperatures could support agriculture. But then, around 1300, the cold returned with a vengeance after the massive eruption of Samalas, a volcano in Indonesia, triggered the Little Ice Age. When that volcanic winter reached Greenland, the Norse farmers simply couldnt adapt quickly enough.That, at least, is the traditional theory; some studies point in other directions. In 2022, a team of climatologists from the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, reconstructed the regions climate based on lake sediments. Surprisingly, they found not a drop in temperature but a persistent drying trend. They reasoned that this drought, which would have reduced grass for livestock grazing, may have been the true cause of the Greenland settlers demise.5. PuebloMesa Verde (Credit: SL-Photography/Shutterstock)For nearly two millennia from roughly 300 B.C.E. to 1300 C.E., the ancestral Pueblo thrived in what today seems the unlikeliest of environments: the southwestern United States. Centered around elaborate sandstone complexes in Chaco Canyon, Mesa Verde, and the Rio Grande, they farmed maize and built a vibrant trade network that spread across Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona.But they left their great cities behind when the climate finally turned on them in the middle of the 13th century. After centuries of deforestation and topsoil erosion, the region was already suffering from landscape degradation. Then this should sound familiar by now came the drought.The Pueblos unsustainable land use practices were exacerbated by reduced rainfall, and finally their fields could no longer support the maize they so depended on for survival. They had no choice but to migrate. Many likely died in place or in transit, but the Pueblo, like the Maya, still have descendants in the modern world. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Sumerian Literature. The cursing of Agade: translationAnnual Reviews. Impacts of Climate Change on the Collapse of Lowland Maya CivilizationJournal of Southwestern Anthropology and History. Climate Change and Cultural Response in the Prehistoric American Southwest Cody Cottier is a contributing writer at Discover who loves exploring big questions about the universe and our home planet, the nature of consciousness, the ethical implications of science and more. He holds a bachelor's degree in journalism and media production from Washington State University.
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  • Supermassive Black Hole Heading Towards The Milky Way Galaxy
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    (Credit: Alexcpt_photography/Shutterstock) NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsBack in 1971, a couple of British astronomers predicted the existence of a black hole at the center of our galaxy. And in 1974, other astronomers found it, naming it Sagittarius A*. Since then, astronomers have discovered that a similar supermassive black hole sits at the center of almost every other large galaxy. In 2019, they took the first image of a supermassive black hole. Today, these exotic objects are a fundamental part of our understanding of how galaxies form and evolve. But what of smaller astronomical bodies, like the Large Magellanic Cloud, a dwarf satellite galaxy that is expected to collide with the Milky Way in 2.4 billion years? Nobody is quite sure whether clouds like this might also house supermassive black holes. Galactic EvolutionNow the evidence is beginning to stack up, thanks to the work of Jiwon Jesse Han at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge and colleagues, who have uncovered compelling evidence that a supermassive black hole resides in the Large Magellanic Cloud after all. If confirmed, the discovery would challenge conventional astrophysical models and deepen our understanding of galaxy evolution.The key to their discovery comes from the study of hypervelocity stars moving so quickly that they can escape the gravitational pull of the Milky Way. Astrophysicists believe these stars began life as one half of a binary system that strayed too close to Sagittarius A*. The extreme gravitational forces in this interaction sent one star hurtling into space while the other remained bound to the black hole.Astronomers have spotted 21 hypervelocity stars in the last two decades, all of them B-type main-sequence stars that are more massive, luminous and bluer than the Sun (these stars are easier to spot than other stars in these kinds of surveys). More recently, they have also been able to determine the proper motion of these stars. So Han and co decided to investigate their origin by rewinding their proper motion to see where they came from. That led to an unexpected discovery: many of these stars do not trace back to Sagittarius A* at all. Instead, their trajectories suggest they came from the Large Magellanic Cloud. We find that half of the unbound hypervelocity stars discovered by the HVS Survey trace back not the Galactic Center, but to the Large Magellanic Cloud, say Han and co.In particular, Han and co found a cluster of these stars in the direction of the constellation Leothe so-called "Leo Overdensity.This kind of clustering is not easy to explain if the stars came from the Milky Way. One possibility is that they formed when one of a binary pair became a supernova, accelerating the other to huge velocities; another is that these stars are the result of some fantastical slingshot effect that occurs when three or four stars come together at the same time. But none of these mechanisms can produce stars with such high velocities in such a concentration, say Han and co. Instead, the most plausible explanation is that they were launched by a supermassive black hole at the center of the Large Magellanic Cloud. We find that the birth rate and clustering of Large Magellanic Cloud hypervelocity stars cannot be explained by supernova runaways or dynamical ejection scenarios not involving a supermassive black hole, say the team.Pattern MatchingTo test the hypothesis, Han and co simulated the way a supermassive black hole in the Cloud would interact with nearby star systems. It turns out that it would spit out stars in a pattern that closely matches the observed data, in particular, producing the Leo Overdensity. The predicted spatial and kinematic distributions of simulated hypervelocity stars are remarkably similar to the observed distributions, say Han and co.The team estimate that the mass of the Large Magellanic Clouds putative black hole to be around 600,000 solar massessignificantly smaller than Sagittarius A*, which is about 4.3 million solar masses, but still within the range of known SMBHs. If confirmed, this would make the Large Magellanic Cloud one of the smallest galaxies known to host a supermassive black hole. It suggests the formation of supermassive black holes must be more common than expected and could also explain other long-standing anomalies in the dynamics of the Cloud. For example, astronomers have observed unusual motions of stars and unexplained mass distributions within it, which could be the result of the gravitational pull of a central black hole. In other words, this supermassive black hole could have played a crucial role in shaping the Clouds internal structure and its interaction with the Milky Way.Of course, more evidence will be needed to confirm the discovery. Future observations with high-resolution telescopes or next-generation space-based observatories could help detect the signature emissions from a black hole or its gravitational influence on nearby stars.And the discovery of more hypervelocity stars, particularly in the southern hemisphere, could strengthen the argument. If more of these trace back to the Cloud, it would provide further confirmation that a black hole is at work. In the much longer term, the Milky Way is destined to have a closer relationship to the Large Magellanic Cloud and its black holetheir current velocities suggest they will collide in about 2.4 billion years. In the meantime, the search for this black hole is set to begin in earnest.Ref: Hypervelocity Stars Trace a Supermassive Black Hole in the Large Magellanic Cloud : arxiv.org/abs/2502.00102galaxies1 free article leftWant More? 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  • New Molecule Used in Cancer Treatment Shows Promise for Treating HIV
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    A molecule that is currently being used to treat cancerous soft-tissue sarcomas may be the key for developing a cure for HIV.This molecule, known as EBC-46, works by temporarily activating the HIV virus in the affected cells as they hide so that the bodys immune system can remove the virus, according to a study published recently in Science Advances.Its pretty amazing, says Paul Wender, a chemist at Stanford University. In this new agent, we were seeing things that get up to 90 percent reactivation.The Need for TreatmentHIV is a virus that can eventually lead to the deadly condition AIDS. The World Health Organization estimates that nearly 40 million people around the world are infected with HIV.Treatments known as antiretrovirals exist and they stop the HIV virus from replicating, turning it into a manageable condition rather than a life-threatening disease. But these drugs are often expensive, and those with HIV that live in developing countries often cant access them. They are also life-long treatments since antiretrovirals dont fully eradicate the disease.If you ever stop taking therapy, the virus can come roaring back, says Matthew Marsden, a virologist at the University of California, Irvine.Read More: How Close Are We to a Cure for HIV?The Discovery of EBC-46 Wender, Marsden, and others began to look at compounds that might be more effective. They turned to EBC-46, a compound found in its natural form in the seeds of blushwood trees from the rainforests of northeastern Australia.The U.S. Food and Drug Administration had already approved a medication using the compound to treat cancerous soft-tissue sarcomas in humans in 2024, after having an 88 percent success rate in treating tumors in dogs.EBC-46 works to activate the protein kinase C, which in turn prompts the infected cell to come out of latency. Once the cell is out of hiding, the bodys immune system can identify it and begin removing the source of the virus.Once Wender, Marsden, and their colleagues synthesized EBC-46 and began to tinker with it, as described in their study, they created small changes that improved its effectiveness. The compound could kickstart about 90 percent of the cells where HIV was hiding, Wender says.How Does HIV Elude Detection?The trouble with eradication lies in the HIV virus ability to hide. Antiretrovirals may keep the viral load down by stopping HIV from replicating, but some HIV often lies dormant in hidden parts of the body, making it difficult to completely eradicate.The virus can actually hide out in very rare latent cells, Marsden says.Its so good at hiding that the bodys own immune system doesnt detect the devastating intruder, making the treatment of HIV something like a game of whack-a-mole. Just as you knock out some of the infection, more may appear.As a result, Marsden and Wender have been working for more than a decade and a half on ways that they could expose the hiding virus, producing a cure to the disease rather than a lifelong treatment.The approach to a cure would be to get at the source cells, Wender says.Researching Organic CompoundsWender and his colleagues originally synthesized prostratin, which had promise in finding the latent HIV cells in 2008. This compound was isolated from the bark of a tree long used by Samoan traditional healers to treat hepatitis ethnobotanist Paul Cox recorded its use there, bringing the compound to the attention of other researchers.Wender also found promise in a molecule called bryostatin 1. The organic compound came from a marine creature known as the common bugula, but it was so scarce that 14 tons of the creature was needed just to extract 14 grams of bryostatin 1, according to the study published in Science in 2017.The trouble is, bryostatin 1 only activates about 20 percent of the latent cells carrying HIV.How Can a Cancer Drug Help With HIV?Cancer and HIV are different diseases. EBC-46 activates antigens directly on the tumorous tissue to help treat sarcomas. In the case of HIV, EBC-46 activates infected cells, exposing the virus and allowing our antibodies to attack them.We want safe and effective ways to flush out latent virus, Marsden says.In the beginning, EBC-46 could at least interrupt the constant need for antiretroviral treatment. This would be a first step towards complete elimination of the infected cells.Everything in medicine takes time, and its difficult for Wender or Marsden to say how long it will take to develop EBC-46 and bring it to market. Wender says that things like human tolerability, efficacy, and variability in the population still need to be addressed.Nonetheless, we have something that I would consider very exciting, Wender says.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:World Health Organization. HIVScience Direct. ProstratinJoshua Rapp Learn is an award-winning D.C.-based science writer. An expat Albertan, he contributes to a number of science publications like National Geographic, The New York Times, The Guardian, New Scientist, Hakai, and others.
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  • DNA From Cave Dirt Unearths Genetic Roots of the Red Lady of El Mirn
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    In the cave of El Mirn in northern Spain, intrigue surrounds a woman who was laid to rest there 19,000 years ago. Her bones, coated in an earthy shade of red derived from the natural pigment ochre, led archaeologists to give her the name the "Red Lady of El Mirn;" new research, however, hastaken a closer look not at her red-hued bones, but at the soil within the cave.In a study recently published in Nature Communications, researchers analyzed sedimentary ancient DNA, or sedaDNA, refining their understanding of the Red Lady of El Mirns heritage. In addition, they detected genetic evidence showing the consistent presence of several carnivore species that often visited the cave when humans werent present.A Colorful BurialAlthough archaeologists started exploring El Mirn in 1996, remnants of the Red Lady weren't found until 2010. Her remains, including an array of mostly intact bones, were concealed in a narrow space behind a limestone block etched with engravings. Researchers speculate that these engravings were potentially meant to mark the Red Ladys burial site a V shape carved into the block, for example, may have signified a womans burial in particular.The idea that the Red Lady was intentionally buried is lent more credence by her ochre-coated bones. Those who buried her covered her body in ochre obtained from a location outside of the cave as a kind of ritual offering. At some point, a carnivore possibly a wolf dug up parts of the skeleton, including a tibia that it gnawed on, leaving teeth marks. Researchers hypothesize that the skeleton was later coated in ochre again and reburied, meaning the involvement of ochre in this ancient burial process must have held some significance.The Red Lady's AncestryThe researchers were able to recover three human DNA samples of Solutrean lineage from sedimentary ancient DNA; ancient populations of the Solutrean tool-making culture lived around Southwestern France and Spain during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), the most recent ice age in history that occurred roughly between 26,000 and 19,000 years ago. These people had moved south during a period of major climate upheaval, preceding the Red Lady and contributing to her DNA. The El Mirn cave, then, was likely a refugium for ancient humans during and immediately after the LGM.In the future, researchers will aim to recover nuclear DNA from the El Mirn sediments, which could provide an even more detailed look at the genetic makeup of the Red Lady.Carnivores in the CaveThe new study shows that El Mirn was home to several animals throughout the Paleolithic Era. Most notably, carnivores like the one that chewed on the Red Ladys tibia frequented the cave during the Paleolithic. Physical evidence of animal remains is sparse in the cave, so researchers turned to sedimentary ancient DNA from dirt to supplement their studies.The researchers recovered DNA belonging to carnivorous species like spotted hyena, Iberian lynx, and dhole, a species of wild dog now only found in eastern and southeastern Asia. Carnivores such as these ones likely came to the cave to scavenge leftovers from humans. DNA from multiple herbivores was found as well, including reindeer, rhinoceros, and wooly mammoth. The results demonstrate the potential of sedimentary ancient DNA as a valuable method that can fill in gaps in the archaeological record when physical remains like bones are limited.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Journal of Archaeological Science. The Red Lady of El Mirn. Lower Magdalenian life and death in Oldest Dryas Cantabrian Spain: an overviewJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.
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  • 183-Million-Year-Old Fossil Reveals That Plesiosaur Skin Was Smooth and Scaly
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    Is it better to be smooth or to be scaly? For fossil plesiosaurs around 183 million years ago, the answer was a bit of both. Scrutinizing some of the first soft tissues from a fossil plesiosaur in a study in Current Biology, a team of researchers has revealed that these massive marine reptiles sported both smooth and scaly skin, potentially suited to swimming as well as to skimming or bottom-walking over the seafloor.Fossilized soft tissue, such as skin and internal organs, is exceptionally rare, said Miguel Marx, lead study author and a geology graduate student at Lund University in Sweden, in a press release. We used a broad range of techniques to identify smooth skin in the tail region as well as scales along the rear edge of the flippers. This provided us with unparalleled insights into the appearance and biology of these long-extinct reptiles.Read More: Why Were Prehistoric Marine Reptiles So Huge?Plesiosaur Skin Fit For Swimming (And Skimming)Soft tissues preserve a fossil plesiosaurs smooth and scaly skin. (Credit: Klaus Nilkens/Urwelt-Museum Hauff)The plesiosaurs, the large marine reptiles that thrived in the oceans of the Mesozoic around 203 million to 66 million years ago, werent wholly unlike the modern marine animals of today. Reaching lengths of as many as 40 feet long, these reptiles had long necks, broad bodies, and flat flippers, resulting in a loose resemblance to a modern-day sea turtle, both in terms of their looks and their methods of movement. The skin of the plesiosaurs and its similarity to that of modern marine animals has been something of a mystery, however, as few fossil specimens have had any traces of soft tissues preserved. Turning to a 183-million-year-old plesiosaur fossil from Germanys Posidonia Shale, researchers have now provided novel insights into plesiosaur skin in the Jurassic period, revealing a strange mixture of smooth on the tail and scaly on the flippers. Perhaps suited to the plesiosaurs predation strategies, it is possible that the animals smooth skin added to its speed, increasing its agility as it swam after fish, while its scaly, turtle-like skin added to its stability, steadying its movement as it swam. It is also possible, according to the researchers, that the scaly skin supported the animal as it skimmed or bottom-walked over the seafloor in search of food, though the idea that these creatures fed at the bottom of the ocean is still disputed. Our findings help us create more accurate life reconstructions of plesiosaurs, something that has been extremely difficult since they were first studied over 200 years ago, Marx said in a press release.Precisely PreservedPreserved at the tip of the plesiosaurs flipper are two turtle-like scales, shown above. (Credit: Klaus Nilkens/Urwelt-Museum Hauff)Though the 15-foot fossil was freed from the Posidonia Shale in 1940, it wasnt until 2020 that the preserved soft tissues around its tail and front flippers were found. Imaging the specimen, which is housed at the Urwelt-Museum Hauff in Holzmaden, Germany, with an assortment of techniques and analyzing its molecular makeup, the team found that the tissues were so precisely preserved that the individual skin cells were able to be studied.Apart from the mosaic of smooth skin and scales, it was an incredible moment to visualize the cells in thin sections of the fossilized plesiosaurs skin, Marx said in a press release. I was shocked when I saw skin cells that had been preserved for 183 million years. It was almost like looking at modern skin.Ultimately, the researchers results reveal the looks and locomotion of the plesiosaurs in new detail, uncovering the smooth and scaly adaptations that allowed them to thrive. The well-preserved German fossil really highlights the potential for soft tissue in providing valuable insights into the biology of these long-extinct animals, Marx said in a press release.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Current Biology. Skin, Scales, and Cells in a Jurassic PlesiosaurSam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.
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  • Ocean Floor Anomaly Could Provide a New Way to Mark Time
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    Schematic depiction of production and incorporation of cosmogenic 10Be into ferromanganese crusts. (Credit: HZDR / blrck.de)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsDating can be full of surprises. In the social kind, one can learn about all sorts of unexpected things about a potential partner. In the scientific type, sometimes strange, unexplained phenomena comes to light.The latter was the case for a group of scientists, who found twice as much Beryllium-10 in the Pacific seabed then expected. This anomaly could shift our understanding of cosmic phenomenon that affect the Earth and also help recalibrate scientific dating techniques, they report in Nature Communications.Mystery in the Pacific OceanDominik Koll, a postdoctoral researcher with TUD Dresden University of Technology, was searching for signs of stardust in the ferromanganese crust at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean. Instead, he noticed an anomaly: an accumulation of twice as much Beryllium-10 (10Be) dating back 10 million years than expected.The rare radioactive isotope produced by cosmic rays in the atmosphere, is used to date objects millions of years old, because its half-life is 1.4 million years. Radiocarbon, used for dating archeological objects, has a half-life of 5,730 years, making it only useful for objects up to 50,000 years old.The double dose of Beryllium-10 was unexpected, because no such increase of the isotope over the last 10 million years has been detected anywhere else on Earth.To find such a pronounced increase of 10Be was truly unexpected, says Koll. Something exceptional must have happened at that time.Varying TheoriesBut what? Koll has two theories: It could be due to either a massive shift in ocean currents or an unknown astrophysical event. The current hypothesis is the low-hanging fruit. Changing ocean currents should be straightforward to prove or dismiss, says Koll. The absolute amount of 10Be on Earth would be constant, therefore, a redistribution would need to take place to produce an anomaly in the Pacific. Consequently, there would be a lack of 10Be somewhere on Earth and you should also be able to find samples where the anomaly is not present at all."The cosmic ray theory would take more work to verify or dispute.A higher production rate of 10Be due to an enhanced cosmic ray flux (interstellar cloud collision or supernova) on the other side would be a global phenomenon which would be imprinted into all archives, says Koll. We definitely need more investigations of ferromanganese crusts and deep-ocean sediments that are 10 million years old."Taking and analyzing samples from all over the Earth, dating back 10 million years, would be necessary to confirm or deny that hypothesis.Synchronizing All TimescalesThis anomaly brings up a broader scientific issues the need to synchronize different archives such as ice cores, tree-rings, deep-ocean sediments, and ferromanganese crusts. Doing so would provide a more accurate picture of the climate of the past, earlier habitability on Earth, or changes in Earths ecosystem.Currently they are all independently dated and there are tremendous efforts to synch all timescales, says Koll. An independent time marker, present in all archives of the same age, is the key to synchronize datasets. This anomaly is our chance, if discovered in other archives, to have another time marker, but on a completely different timescale.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Nature Communications. A cosmogenic 10Be anomaly during the late Miocene as independent time marker for marine archives Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In
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  • Citizen Science for Your Heart and Soul
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    Roses are red,Violets are blue,Single or coupled,Here are projects for you!XOXO,The SciStarter TeamThe Great Backyard Bird CountCredit: Image by Piet van de Wiel/PixabayLove is in the air and so are the birds! The Great Backyard Bird Count kicks off on Valentine's Day (Feb 14).Here's an easy way to help scientists create a real-time snapshot of bird populations: just spend 15 minutes watching and reporting birds you see...including...E-A-G-L-E-S~EAGLES! Location: GlobalCount BirdsBalloon Litter ProjectCredit: Caroline Nickerson/CanvaResist the urge to buy a balloon this Valentines Day help track balloon litter instead! Show love for both your Valentine and the planet by reporting balloon waste you find. Your observations help scientists understand and reduce balloon and plastics pollution.Location: GlobalTrack Balloon LitterHealth eHeart StudyHelp scientists unlock the secrets to a healthier heart by joining the Health eHeart Study. Its free, fully online, and takes just minutes and your participation can make a lasting impact on heart disease research.Location: GlobalParticipate Whole-HeartedlyFrogWatch USACredit: Canva A trip to the zoo makes for a fun and unique dateespecially when you pair it with a fine wine... or, uh, frog call training.Many zoos host FrogWatch training sessions where you and your loved one can learn to identify frog and toad calls, helping scientists learn more about amphibians.Who knows? You might not find a prince by kissing a frog, but you'll definitely find a great way to spend the evening together!Location: USAKiss a Frog? No! Save One. The Neureka ProjectLove comes from the brain, not the heart. Pay your respects to the one true Cupid with The Neureka Project. Games and questionnaires track mental wellness symptoms, from dementia to depression.Location: GlobalShow Your Brain Some LoveReading EmotionsCredit: CanvaWhy do imaginary stories feel so real? Reading Emotions invites book lovers to help uncover the emotional complexity of literary characters by annotating their feelings online.Your insights will help build transparent AI models that better understand storytellingbecause great fiction is more than just words!Location: GlobalExplore Emotions in StoriesScience is a Great CompanionCredit: Caroline Nickerson/CanvaOur own resident science, outreach and, yes, relationship advisor Caroline Nickerson gives her top picks for Valentine's Day science projects to warm the heart of your current or maybe future significant other! Location: Wherever Your Heart LeadsSciStarter Loves YouPrepare for Citizen Science MonthWe are less than 8 weeks away from our month-long celebration of citizen science. We are again aiming for One Million Acts of Science in April. Are you planning to host an event or program? Find Everything You Need on SciStarterSciStarter LIVE Feb 13, 2025 Camera Trap Citizen Science for Your Classroom! Learn how to classify data from motion-activated cameras to study wildlife and engage students in real-world research. RSVP Feb 18, 2025 Invasive Species Awareness Week: Take Action! Learn how to combat invasive species with iMapInvasives Mitchell ONeill. Share your experiences and strategies! RSVP Feb 25, 2025 Household Slime & CO2 Capture! Your homes slime might help fight climate change! Join this citizen science project and contribute to research. RSVPFebruary CalendarNew projects on SciStarter:
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  • Does Digital Fitness Tracking Actually Make us Healthier?
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    These days, theres a way to track nearly every aspect of fitness and health. You can track your calories, your sleep, your heart rate and the number of steps you take every day. You can track the number of miles youve run, biked or hiked. Often, tracking products advertise health benefits. Ads for fitness-tracking watches like Garmin and Fitbit urge users to tune into your body, unlock human performance, and find your energy. The basic idea is that knowing more about our behavior will lead us to make healthier choices. But some scholars are beginning to question that assumption. Do health metrics actually make us healthier? Or do they have unintended consequences?Digital Tracking Is Mostly HelpfulWearable fitness trackers burst into the mainstream in the late 2000s, when companies like Fitbit and Nike introduced monitors that could sync up with computers and, later, smart phones. Since then, several independent researchers have launched inquiries into how these devices influence physical health, psychological well-being, and behavior. After nearly two decades of research, some questions have been answered. One of the industrys primary claims that tracking your fitness increases your activity level seems to be mostly true.A review of 71 papers studying the phenomenon found that fitness tracking has a positive impact on users' motivation to be physically active. Most of the studies also found that fitness tracking boosted physical activity levels and made users healthier. Yet, these findings have their limitations. Research has shown users who are relatively young (under 50) and already highly active get the most benefit from tracking. In other words, tracking works best for people that already like to exercise.On the other hand, people that are older or less active are more likely to abandon the device. And, for those users, tracking might cause harm. Multiple studies have found that failing to meet tracking goals or underperforming in relation to your peers conjures guilt and frustration. This often leads those users to (you guessed it) abandon the program entirely. The Fitbit is thrown in the bin out of frustration and daily life proceeds.High and Low PerformersAisha Sobey, a postdoctoral scholar at Jesus College Cambridge, recently co-authored a critique of fitness tracking metrics. She argues that fitness tracking research has overemphasized users that benefit from it at the expense of those that dont.It makes people at the bottom do less, she says. We think of this as an unintended consequence.The good news, perhaps, is that these harms may be a result of product design. The most effective fitness tracking platforms hack users' motivation through competition and social reinforcement. For instance, the running-focused app Strava allows users to compare their statistics with friends and followers. For high performers, these features provide a confidence boost. But those at the bottom of the curve feel left behind. To Sobey, its a reminder of the limitations that come with developing a mass-market product for a highly individual experience. Every human has a unique body and mind. The same tool that provides a benefit to one person is bound to harm another.Theres a limit to how personalized these apps can be, she says. Its like, Were going to get you to this end point. You can pick which way you want to go, but the ends remain the same.The Fun in Working OutOne study from Duke assistant professor Jordan Etkin found that, while tracking increases users activity level, it can also undermine users intrinsic motivation. In other words, it encourages users to focus more on reaching goals and less on enjoying the process.By drawing attention to output, measurement can make enjoyable activities feel more like work, Etkin wrote.In her critique, Sobey argues that this detriment stems from the outputs that tracking apps choose to quantify. We cant put something into numbers without making it a goal, she says. Thats fine if youre trying to achieve something, but it distracts from the joy of the thing.Perhaps the antidote to the pitfalls of fitness tracking is, well, more tracking. But, instead of myopically focusing on quantitative metrics, users might make a note, snap a photo or write in a good-old-fashioned journal. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Journal of Consumer Research. The Hidden Cost of Personal QuantificationAssociation for Computing Machinery. The Harmful Fetishisation of Reductive Personal Tracking Metrics in Digital SystemsGabe Allen is a Colorado-based freelance journalist focused on science and the environment. He is a 2023 reporting fellow with the Pulitzer Center and a current master's student at the University of Colorado Center for Environmental Journalism. His byline has appeared in Discover Magazine, Astronomy Magazine, Planet Forward, The Colorado Sun, Wyofile and the Jackson Hole News&Guide.
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  • Meet the Tuberculosis Nurses, the Black Women Who Helped Cure TB
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    Science journalist Maria Smilios was editing a book on orphan lung diseases when one line caught her attention. In a chapter about a rare lung disease, the author commented that perhaps a cure could be discovered as quickly as the cure for tuberculosis was found at Sea View Hospital on Staten Island in the 1950s.Smilios began researching and learned how the first clinical trial for a lifesaving antibiotic happened at Sea View under the watchful supervision of experienced nurses all of them Black women. But she could find little more about the nurses.These women had been completely erased from history, Smilios says. There was not a single thing about them. Nothing.She set out to uncover their story and learn about the nurses who physicians said were responsible for the success of the Sea View drug trial and the discovery of a cure for tuberculosis.The Women Behind the CureTuberculosis (TB) has plagued humans for thousands of years and has even show up in the archeological record dating back 9,000 years ago. Written record of TB goes back 3,300 years. At times, this disease was as deadly as the plague and was responsible for as many as 25 percent of deaths in the U.S. and Europe between the 1600s and the 1800s.In New York in the late 1920s, TB was more common among the poor who lived in crowded, often unsanitary conditions. They were sent to Sea View, where the administration struggled to employ nurses. White nurses were afraid of the disease, quit, and sought employment elsewhere rather than risk infection.The hospital began recruiting Black nurses, particularly women from the South who were qualified nurses but unable to find meaningful employment due to segregation.In the following decades, these nurses provided patient care, assisted in surgery, and became experts on the disease.They knew the ebb and flow of the disease. They knew the nuances. They knew that one moment, a patient could be fine, the next they could be choking. TB is long and drawn out, says Smilios, author of The Black Angels: The Untold Story of the Nurses Who Helped Cure Tuberculosis.Their expertise became critical to the drug trial, which was overseen by physician Edward Robitzek.Robitzek said if it hadnt been for the Black nurses, the trial would have never happened, Smilios says.Finding the Cure TBA photo of Clemmie Phillips (Credit: Elizabeth Plair) The trial began in secret in May 1951. Robitzek was approached by a drug company with an opportunity to test a new antibiotic, isoniazid. It had never been tested on humans, only animals.This was the first human trial, there was no data on side effects or curative rates, Smilios says.Robitzek picked five patients and asked if they would be willing to participate in the trial. He then organized the nurses entrusted with overseeing the first phase, including Missouria Meadows-Walker, Edna Sutton, Janie B. Shirley, Clemmie Phillips, and Stiversa Bethel.In June 1951, the nurses gave their trial patients the first dose of isoniazid. For the next six weeks, they continued to dose the patients daily and monitor them constantly. They took intense notes in logbooks that Robitzek collected each evening.The nurses were so keenly aware of their patients conditions Smilios says they were able to identify any minute change. For example, twitching was one side effect of the drug, but the patients slept under heavy blankets. The nurses knew the patients so well that they were able to detect even the subtlest of movements.The astuteness tells you how meticulous they were in their work, Smilios says.Patients also experienced a sensation of giddiness, increased appetite, weight gain, and ringing in their ears. The nurses documented all changes, organized the data, and presented it to Robitzek for further analysis.The initial trial was a success, and Robitzek recruited 92 more patients and more Black Angels to participate. Eventually, the trial would determine isoniazid was most effective when used with two other antibiotics.By early 1952, newspapers were announcing the cure had been found, and trial patients at Sea View were thriving. Robitzek was quoted, honored and remembered in history.The nurses, however, were almost all but forgotten.The Hidden History of the TB NursesA photo of Missouri Meadows-Walker (Credit: Bernice Alleyne) When Smilios began her research in 2015, few Black Angels were still living. One of them, Virginia Allen, then 86, agreed to meet with Smilios for regular interviews. She shared names and contact information for the nurses families who passed on oral histories, photos, letters, and other artifacts.Then, Robitzeks son supplied Smilios with his fathers records, including detailed notes from the TB trial.Smilios learned how the nurses were treated when they first came to New York. Some patients refused to acknowledge them, and they endured mistreatment the worst being when angry patients coughed and aimed their infected phlegm directly at the nurses faces.Given their closeness with the patients, the nurses were at high risk for TB, and some did contract the disease and had to leave the job. But for decades, the Black Angels were a constant at Sea View, providing patient care during an increasingly desperate time.The Impact of TBA photo of Virginia Allen (Credit: Maria Smilios) TB germs typically grow in the lungs but can develop in other places like the kidney, spine, or lymph nodes. At Sea View, surgeons tried to cut out infected parts of the lung to save the person, but few patients left the hospital alive. Some stayed for years before passing away, and nurses cared for patients who were often depressed or anxious about their future.After the success of the drug trial, however, even long-term patients were able to leave the hospital. The last TB patient left Seaview in 1961.TB remains a deadly infectious disease. In 2023, almost 11 million people globally contracted TB, and 1.25 million people died from it.Antibiotics are still used to treat TB, including isoniazid, the drug that began in a secret trial at Sea View Hospital under the watchful eye of the Black Angels.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:CDC. History of World TB DayWHO. TuberculosisEmilie Lucchesi has written for some of the country's largest newspapers, including The New York Times, Chicago Tribune and Los Angeles Times. She holds a bachelor's degree in journalism from the University of Missouri and an MA from DePaul University. She also holds a Ph.D. in communication from the University of Illinois-Chicago with an emphasis on media framing, message construction and stigma communication. Emilie has authored three nonfiction books. Her third, A Light in the Dark: Surviving More Than Ted Bundy, releases October 3, 2023, from Chicago Review Press and is co-authored with survivor Kathy Kleiner Rubin.
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  • Some Baleen Whales Sing at Low Frequency to Avoid Killer Whale Attacks
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    Some baleen whales, or whales that have plates in their mouths to help sieve out plankton, sing low-frequency songs to not only attract potential mates but also keep them safe from killer whale attacks. According to new research published in Marine Mammal Science by the University of Washington (UW), these low-frequency songs are part of a baleen whales fight-or-flight response.Whales in Fight or FlightBaleen whales are often more solitary, as compared to orcas, and include species like humpbacks, blue whales, and gray whales. As solitary creatures, they are easier targets for a pod of killer whales, especially when they have their calves. In a fight-or-flight response, baleens that typically use the fight method include humpbacks, right, gray, and bowheads. According to the study, the fight group of baleens have more navigable bodies. These whales also often tend to have their offspring in shallower coastal waters where they can group up, which can help when it comes to defense against killer whales.However, the baleens that exhibit flight blue, Brydes, sei, fin, and mink whales have more slender bodies, built for quick escapes, according to the study which was led by Trevor Branch, a professor of aquatic and fishery sciences at the UW. These whales typically have calves out in open waters so they can escape in any direction should danger appear.While studying baleen whales, Branch noticed a unique character trait about the flight group, and it all had to do with the sounds they made.Acoustic Crypsis, a Survival MethodWhales produce a hauntingly beautiful song to communicate with mates, mark territory, share the location of food, and find each other. But these songs can reach over 1,500 hertz, and are easy for killer whales to hear. For the fight group of baleen whales, they are prepared for conflict with an orca.But for the flight group, creating loud songs to attract mates is too great a risk for inviting predators as well. To combat this, Branch noted that the baleen whales in the flight group actually produce lower-frequency songs to prevent orcas from homing in on them. They produce a song thats around 100 hertz. A killer whale would need to be around a half mile away to hear this call.According to Branch, this is known as acoustic crypsis, and its a survival method that helps keep these baleens and the others they care about safe.These super-loud songs could expose them and their mates to killer whale attacks. And this is where acoustic crypsis comes in: singing at low frequencies that are impossible, or very difficult, for killer whales to hear, Branch said in a press release.Influential SongFor this study, Branch analyzed previous data on killer whale hearing abilities and ranges. Along with that, Branch also looked at the different sources of whale songs among baleen populations, how sound moved through the ocean, and which songs were the easiest to detect from killer whales.From the data collected, Branch determined that out in the open ocean, the sound landscape is governed by fear. Certain species of baleen whales the flight group have developed methods to keep their mates and offspring safe. By singing these low songs, they can find each other and live their lives.For the other groups of baleens, however, they almost seem proud of their loud voices, and are ready for whatever predator may come their way.Overall, Branch noted that each whales fight or flight method seemed to dictate every part of their life, from how they communicate to where theyre found to where they eat.It just never occurred to me that some whales sing low to avoid killer whales, but the more I looked at this, the more I realized that every aspect of their behavior is influenced by the fear of predation, Branch said in a press release. Read More: Blue Whales Chase the Wind to Hunt Tiny PreyArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:NOAA. Why do whales make sounds?A graduate of UW-Whitewater, Monica Cull wrote for several organizations, including one that focused on bees and the natural world, before coming to Discover Magazine. Her current work also appears on her travel blog and Common State Magazine. Her love of science came from watching PBS shows as a kid with her mom and spending too much time binging Doctor Who.
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  • NASA's 3D Observation of the Sun Will Include Images of a Solar Eclipse From Space
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    NASA intends to take an unprecedented 3D observation of the sun this month. In doing so, the agency hopes to understand why its outer atmosphere the corona is hotter than its surface, how does the solar wind work, and how the corona transforms into solar wind. As a bonus, the mission will take 3D pictures of a solar eclipse, from space.Learning More About the Sun's SurfaceThe system that will make these things possible is made up of four small satellites that will work together to create 3D pictures of the area closest to the suns surface. The system, called PUNCH, (for Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere), will cover a massive amount of space called the heliosphere, the region of the space influenced by the Sun."Our heliosphere is this massive, gigantic object that spans so far out from the sun, and PUNCH is going to connect from the closest end of the sun to the farthest out," Joe Westlake, the director of NASA's Heliophysics Division at the agency's headquarters, told reporters during a virtual press conference.Read More: The Dazzling Sun of 2024Four Satellites Working TogetherPUNCH will ride a SpaceX Falcon9 rocket, enter low-Earth orbit, and work with NASAs agency's SPHEREx observatory, which the agency describes as a wide-angle version of the James Webb Space Telescope. Instrumentation from the combination of the four PUNCH satellites will combine views from both the strongest and weakest of rays of the sun and will avoid Earth blocking out any views by combining data from the four far-flung satellites.This more complete picture of the heliosphere should improve space weather forecasting. Since instruments will always be trained on the sun, catching solar storms should be much easier.The imagery PUNCH creates from data collected from its four satellites should also be much sharper than other shots of the sun. It is the first mission designed to make use of the polarization of light to measure the corona and solar wind in 3D, much the way polarizing sunglasses align the light particles for clearer vision. The polarization system, extremely sensitive cameras and an extra-wide angle view will provide greater detail of the sun, its corona, and the winds that flow out from it.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.
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  • Probiotics Could Battle Anxiety, Leading to New Treatments for Mental Health
    www.discovermagazine.com
    Once again, the microbiome proves to be a key player in human health. The diverse microbial community we inherit at birth serves multiple functions, from aiding digestion and nutrient production to training our immune system and even influencing brain chemistry. A recent study, published in EMBO Molecular Medicine, builds on the exploration of the gut-brain connection by linking anxiety regulation to microbial metabolites.Researchers from Duke-NUS Medical School and the National Neuroscience Institute in Singapore have uncovered how microbial produced compounds influence brain activity associated with anxiety in mice. Their findings could pave the way for new probiotic-based treatments for anxiety disorders.Anxiety and Amygdala ActivityThe study found that mice raised in a germ-free environment exhibited increased anxiety-like behaviors. This was linked to heightened activity in neurons within the amygdala, a small yet crucial brain structure responsible for processing emotions.In the amygdala, calcium-dependent SK2 channels help regulate neuronal activity. In the absence of microbes, these channels were less effective at controlling neuron firing, leading to excessive excitability and, consequently, anxiety-related behavior.To test whether gut microbes influence neuronal excitability in the amygdala, researchers introduced live microbes to the germ-free mice through a process known as conventionalization. This involved fecal transplantation from microbe-exposed control mice. The results were striking: the previously overactive neurons became less excitable, and the mice displayed reduced anxiety behaviors.Our findings reveal the specific and intricate neural process that link microbes to mental health," said Assistant Professor Shawn Je, from Duke-NUS Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Research Program, in a press release. "Essentially, the lack of these microbes disrupted the way their brains functioned, particularly in areas that control fear and anxiety, leading to anxious behavior."Indoles: The Key to Microbial Influence on the BrainThe study suggests that indoles, a class of organic compounds structurally related to serotonin, the neurotransmitter that affects mood, play a crucial role in this gut-brain interaction. Gut bacteria produce a wide variety of metabolites, and indoles have the remarkable ability to cross the blood-brain barrier an essential trait for any substance that directly affects brain function.When germ-free mice were given drinking water supplemented with indoles, neuronal activity in the amygdala decreased, and their anxiety-related behaviors diminished. This finding reinforces the idea that naturally occurring microbial metabolites contribute to maintaining emotional balance.The Evolutionary Role of AnxietySven Pettersson, a lead author of the study from the Department of Research, National Neuroscience Institute of Singapore, explained that anxiety-related responses have deep evolutionary roots. At birth, newborns experience a major physiological shift hunger becomes a survival-driven sensation, essentially a first encounter with anxiety. This transition is accompanied by exposure to breast milk, which contains microbes capable of producing indoles.In mammals, circulating levels of microbial indoles may reflect an individual's sensitivity to stress and their vulnerability to anxiety-related conditions.Anxiety is not merely a psychological phenomenon; it is linked to physiological and behavioral changes that help organisms respond to potential threats. The presence of gut-derived indoles may help regulate these responses, ensuring a balanced reaction to stress.A Potential New Treatment PathwayAnxiety disorders are among the most common mental health conditions, yet treatment options remain limited, with many individuals struggling to tolerate standard psychiatric medications.Our findings underscore the deep evolutionary links between microbes, nutrition and brain function," said Patrick Tan, senior vice-dean for research at Duke-NUS, in the press release. "This has huge potential for people suffering from stress-related conditions, such as sleep disorders or those unable to tolerate standard psychiatric medications. Its a reminder that mental health is not just in the brainits in the gut too."As research into the gut-brain connection continues to evolve, indole-based probiotics or dietary supplements could become a natural alternative for managing anxiety. While further studies are needed, these findings reinforce the growing recognition that mental health is not solely a function of the brain, it is deeply intertwined with the gut microbiome.The prospect of harnessing beneficial microbes for mental well-being may soon transition from theory to reality, offering new hope for those affected by anxiety disorders.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:EMBO Molecular Medicine. Microbial metabolites tune amygdala neuronal hyperexcitability and anxiety-linked behaviorsNational Library of Medicine. A systematic review of reviews on the prevalence of anxiety disorders in adult populationsHaving worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When shes not immersed in a popular science book, youll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.
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  • Space Junk Is Falling in Airplane Flight Paths, but Chances of Impact Is Low
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    Air traffic controllers now have something new to worry about: space junk. A report warns the risk of parts left over from a launch rocket or other debris plummeting into global flight paths is now 26 percent a year, according to a report in the journal Nature.While the chance of debris hitting an aircraft is low, its presence in flight paths could still pose a big enough risk that routes will need to be altered inconveniencing passengers. Such disruptions are not unheard of. In 2022, a 20-ton chunk of rocket re-entering Earths atmosphere prompted Spanish and French aviation authorities to close parts of their airspace.With launches increasing every year, so too, do the risks of junk plummeting to Earth. While the risk of hitting someone on the ground remains at a relatively low 3 percent, more frequent launches confer more risks.Increasingly Crowded SpaceThere are really two categories to consider: junk that falls to Earth shortly after a launch, or debris that hails down after years in orbit. This is an important distinction, because monitoring and controlling the debris is different in each of those scenarios.The first scenario, while no less alarming, is easier to manage, says Ewan Wright, a graduate student at the University of British Columbia and an author of the study. He points to the recent explosion of a SpaceX rocket shortly after launch. Aviation officials were quickly able to close down the affected airspace.This is not so easy when something thats been in orbit for years heeds the call of Earths gravity. There is little warning about when that could happen, and even less ability to monitor its descent.The numbers fueling the report indicate that these potential scenarios are growing. In 2024, there were 258 successful rocket launches, and 120 uncontrolled rocket debris re-entries, with more than 2,300 rocket bodies in orbit. Meanwhile air passenger numbers are anticipated to grow by 7 percent this year.Dealing with the first scenario debris falling shortly after launch is theoretically easier. Rocket stages equipped with thrusters could be fired up for controlled re-entry. That happens with some, but not all, launches.Leveling the Playing FieldThe reason why now more launches arent managed that way comes down to both money and regulation. It costs more to create a controlled re-entry. Many rockets now carry satellites from both commercial interests and the military. Neither is keen to foot the extra costs. Also, like managing the amount of space junk, there are no binding, enforceable agreements.International terms would even the competitive playing field. If one country brings in new rules, that would disadvantage the competitors, says Wright.Debris that suddenly fall to Earth from orbit is harder to monitor and control especially since the debris is falling at 5 to 6 miles per second. Its difficult to predict reentry, says Wright. If you are off a bit, it could hit a different country or continent than the one youve predicted.Air traffic controllers shouldnt have to make snap judgments about what parts of the airspace they need to close off for these events, according to Aaron Boley, a UBC professor and co-author of the study. Uncontrolled rocket body re-entries are a design choice, not a necessity, Boley, said in a press release. The space industry is effectively exporting its risk to airlines and passengers.The authors biggest concern is that, although each chance of a single incident is small, as launches increase and satellites accumulate in orbit, the odds for catastrophe will climb. Uniform regulations and monitoring globally could minimize the chances of injury or death from space debris.We need to push for a change before someone gets hurt," says Wright.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Nature. Airspace closures due to reentering space objectsBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.
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  • New Strain of Norovirus May Be Causing Uptick In Cases
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    Norovirus illustration; This is not an example of the new strain, but the norovirus in general. (Credit: Kateryna Kon/Shutterstock)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsEvery winter, public health departments report a rise in illnesses. Most of these infections are expected during the colder months, and the data features the usual lineup of suspects acute bronchitis, influenza, pneumonia, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).This year has also seen a surge in norovirus, a highly contagious stomach bug. Starting November 2024, the percentage of positive tests for norovirus began to increase, which is to be expected in the colder months when people begin to congregate inside more.But by January 2025, almost one-quarter of the tests were positive, nearly double the rate of last seasons outbreak, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).Although the stats may seem scary, scientists know why norovirus infections are soaring this year. And they have advice on how people can protect themselves.Symptoms of NorovirusNorovirus, also known as the stomach flu, is a virus that hits the stomach and intestines, causing irritation and inflammation. Symptoms typically come on quickly and often violently. People experience diarrhea, nausea, stomach cramps, and vomiting.Norovirus might seem similar to food poisoning, and both are common illnesses, but the pathogens are distinct. In a typical year, as many as 1 in 15 people in the U.S. will contract norovirus. Most people recover on their own within a few days, but about 109,000 will require hospitalization, and 900 will die.Norovirus is a common virus that is the main cause of gastroenteritis in the U.S., causing about 60 percent of all cases the majority of 'stomach bugs' that people develop, says Robert H. Hopkins, Jr., a physician and the medical director of the National Foundation for Infectious Diseases (NFID).How Does It Spread?Norovirus spreads easily in places where people congregate, like schools, nursing homes, and restaurants. Cruise ships have also been susceptible to norovirus, and outbreaks are tracked by the CDC. Already, two ships in January 2025 were identified as having norovirus.Norovirus is a hardy bug, which makes it easier to spread between people. Norovirus is stable on surfaces for many hours and is not affected by the use of hand sanitizers or mild household cleaners.It also easily passes from person to person through contaminated food or water or when people share utensils, Hopkins says.The reason hand sanitizer cant kill the bug is because the virus does not have an outer coating. Norovirus is covered by a protein capsid that is only disrupted with soap and water or bleach solutions, Hopkins says.And this year, new strains of norovirus are introducing people to a bug in which they lack immunity.A Surge in Norovirus for 2025More people are dealing with norovirus this year for a couple of reasons. First, people dont have long-lasting immunity to norovirus. A 2013 study inEmerging Infectious Diseases found that immunity to norovirus may be as short as four years for adults, although some people may have protections for up to eight years.So, a bad bout in 2015 may remain strong in a persons memory, but by 2025, their immune system has likely forgotten the incident and lacks natural protections.The other reason norovirus is surging this year is because new strains have been introduced. Surges with up to 50 percent more illness occur in seasons during which a new strain emerges, Hopkins says.Starting in September, Hopkins says the U.S. saw the emergence of a new strain, genogroup II genotype 17 [P17]. Although the strain has been documented in other countries, it is new to the U.S., which means people here lack immunity.Regardless of whether a person comes into contact with the standard or new strain, the outcome will likely be the same. Most people who contract norovirus will experience symptoms for a few miserable days and then return to their regular lives.But the bug can cause serious complications and even death for young infants and older adults if they experience severe dehydration and circulatory collapse, Hopkins says.Norovirus vs. Food PoisoningAvoiding food poisoning means steering clear of undercooked, spoiled, or contaminated items. Prevention involves throwing out expired items, handling raw meat carefully and cooking items to the right temperature.However, avoiding norovirus involves a completely different plan of attack because it spreads through a fecal-oral route. This means a person with the bug sheds billions of microscopic particles when they experience diarrhea or vomiting.If the infected person fails to wash their hands properly, they can spread norovirus on surfaces ranging from a door handle to tongs sitting by a breakfast buffet. When the next person touches the door knob or the tongs, the virus spreads to their skin. If they touch their mouth or eat with their unwashed hands, they will ingest the virus and become infected themselves.The best advice to prevent the spread of norovirus is to wash hands well with soap and water, Hopkins says.People may also benefit from sanitizing surfaces with bleach-based cleaning products such as wipes or sprays. If a person does contract the bug, they will likely show symptoms between 12 and 48 hours. The symptoms can be similar to food poisoning, and only testing will determine whether a person has norovirus.Regardless of whether a person has food poisoning or norovirus, the care plan will be the same, hydration, rest, and time, Hopkins says.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:National Foundation of Infectious Diseases. NorovirusEmerging Infectious Diseases. Duration of Immunity to Norovirus GastroenteritisCDC. How Norovirus SpreadsEmilie Lucchesi has written for some of the country's largest newspapers, including The New York Times, Chicago Tribune and Los Angeles Times. She holds a bachelor's degree in journalism from the University of Missouri and an MA from DePaul University. She also holds a Ph.D. in communication from the University of Illinois-Chicago with an emphasis on media framing, message construction and stigma communication. Emilie has authored three nonfiction books. Her third, A Light in the Dark: Surviving More Than Ted Bundy, releases October 3, 2023, from Chicago Review Press and is co-authored with survivor Kathy Kleiner Rubin.1 free article leftWant More? 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  • Art and Science Combine to Reconstruct the Faces of Our Ancestors
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    The story of Homo sapiens is written largely in artifacts. Countless tools, potsherds, and other relics line museum shelves, illuminating the world of our ancestors. But most of the time, this historical picture, though richly strewn with inanimate objects, lacks what would most bring it to life the people themselves.To fill that void, Swedish archaeologist Oscar Nilsson has spent 30 years reconstructing the faces of the dead. With an artist's touch and 150 years of anatomical data at his disposal, he can transform any skull into a strikingly realistic visage. His sculptures some 80 of them adorn museums around the globe offer an electrifying link to the distant past.When you see a human face, you get an emotional response, Nilsson says. It makes us understand history in a much more personal way. Heres how he and other practitioners of facial reconstruction make these awe-inspiring creations.Building a FaceTo start, Nilsson gathers all the information he can about his subject. Besides CT scans of the skull, which serve as a foundation, he needs to know four things: the persons gender, ethnicity, age, and weight. With that information, he can estimate the depth of tissue in various regions of the face by simply looking it up in a table of averages. (Since 1883, scientists have taken roughly 220,000 tissue thickness measurements from nearly 20,000 adults.)Those averages give him a blueprint. From there, Nilsson attaches small pegs to a 3D-printed replica of the skull, each one cut to a precise length. Then we have a face looking like something from a horror movie from the 80s, he jokes. Once he covers the pegs with clay, he can rest assured that he has established the correct facial depth at every point on the skull (and made it a little less monstrous).During this phase, Nilsson says, I spend several hours just observing the skull and writing down notes. That careful survey reveals where exactly all the muscles attach since it differs greatly from person to person.Next come the major facial features. The mouth and nose present little trouble; both can be reconstructed with surprising mathematical precision based on assessment of the bone. The eyes are trickier, though its possible to judge how deep-set they are and even the shape of the eyelids. The most speculative features, as Nilsson put it, are the intricately structured ears. He does his best, then adds a final coat of clay to mimic skin.Where Science Meets ArtAt this point, Nilsson must switch to a more creative frame of mind. He imagines himself traversing a narrow mountain ridge. The path drops away steeply, on one side into scientific sterility and on the other into artistic caprice. You have to find the balance, he says. I never get bored with that.He labors over smaller and smaller details, carving wrinkles and inserting thousands of individual (not to mention real) human hairs. Theres no blueprint anymore hes now dealing with aspects of appearance that you cant predict from a skull itself.That said, DNA analysis is bringing more certainty to reconstruction. When Nilsson started in the mid-1990s, eye color was off-limits; then geneticists figured out how to tell blue from brown; now they can say blue, brown, or in-between. Someday, Nilsson believes, hell be able to distinguish other hues, like hazel and light blue. The same goes for skin tone, as well as hair color and texture.Forensic ReconstructionFor now, though, the work still requires a degree of modesty. Thats especially true in forensic facial reconstruction, where the goal is to help friends and family recognize their dead loved ones based only on skeletal remains.In these cases, says Kathryn Smith, a forensic artist at Stellenbosch University in South Africa, you should absolutely not include any information [] that cannot be scientifically justified or supported by contextual evidence. Even slight errors could hinder identification. For that reason, these depictions are typically grayscale.Coincidentally, Smith uses an all-digital workflow for reconstructions rather than build them manually like Nilsson, she designs them on a computer, using a haptic touch device that allows her to feel the contours of the skull just as she would with her own hands. This adds another dimension since the face can be easily altered and even animated. I prefer the potential mutability of the digital depiction, she says, rather than a fixed object, frozen in time.It Has to RhymeIn historical reconstructions, theres arguably more wiggle room than in forensics. But even then, Nilsson says, Its not supposed to be me having a vision that I place upon the skull. Though some creative license is necessary, I try to be as subtle as I can. This rule applies not only to facial features themselves but also to their expression. He strives for neutral emotion not too happy, not too sad, not too anything.His favorite project was a reconstruction of a queen from the Wari culture, which preceded the Inca in ancient Peru. Considering she was buried alongside 60 other women (likely sacrificed), she was evidently a mighty ruler, and he might have given her a cold, commanding sneer.Instead, her countenance is ambiguous stern, perhaps capable of cruelty, but not without a hint of kindness, as viewers have told him.In short, Nilsson says, some tough judgment calls are inevitable. Every decision has to rhyme in a way with what we can tell, or what we can make educated guesses about. But at the end of the day, it is not a portrait, it is an interpretation of a face.Some help from AIOne technology that could elevate facial reconstruction to near-portrait status is you guessed it artificial intelligence. With enough data on the correlations between skulls and faces, Nilsson notes, a neural network could pick up patterns that are unobservable to even the keenest human eye, vastly improving predictions of facial structure.He doesnt love the idea of replacing the artist, who can explain how they reached their results, with a black-box system. Nevertheless, he says, in terms of sheer accuracy, that would be a bit of a revolution in this field.What isnt likely to change is our deep psychological drive to connect with other people, alive and dead, and our favorite way to do so: face-to-face interaction. I think this fascination for faces is something that we have inherited, Nilsson says. Its been with us forever, and it will continue. Its just the technique that is different.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Oscar Nilsson, Swedish archeologist, sculptor, and forensic artistKathryn Smith, a forensic artist at Stellenbosch University in South AfricaCody Cottier is a contributing writer at Discover who loves exploring big questions about the universe and our home planet, the nature of consciousness, the ethical implications of science and more. He holds a bachelor's degree in journalism and media production from Washington State University.
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  • AI Revives 2,000-Year-Old Roman Scroll Burned in Mount Vesuvius Eruption
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    A 2,000-year-old Roman scroll, scorched beyond repair, has miraculously been unfurled with the help of X-ray scanning and artificial intelligence. The scroll, named PHerc. 172, is one piece to a larger puzzle for years, researchers have pursued restoration of the Herculaneum papyri, a series of over 1,800 scrolls burned and carbonized during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D.PHerc. 172 is the latest remnant of the extensive papyri collection to be digitally opened, reviving lost history in the modern age. Scientists at the University of Oxford where three Herculaneum scrolls (including PHerc. 172) are housed at the universitys Bodleian Libraries recreated an image of the charred scroll and reveal columns of the original text. They now have their sights set on translation as they seek to comprehend writing that has been unseen for centuries.The Loss of an Ancient LibraryBefore Mount Vesuvius demolished the Roman town of Herculaneum in 79 A.D., a massive collection of scrolls sat in what is known today as the Villa of the Papyri. Back in the day, the villa would have been a must-see destination; in addition to the library of papyri scrolls, it boasted extravagant works of art, from frescoes to marble sculptures.When Mount Vesuvius erupted, the librarys scrolls were carbonized into charcoal but were also buried and preserved under layers of rock. As many of the scrolls were excavated over the years, efforts to mechanically unroll them failed, often causing further damage.Rise to the ChallengeX-ray and AI technology eventually emerged as non-invasive tools that could pave the way for digital restoration. Dr. Brent Seales, a professor of computer science at the University of Kentucky, led the charge to adopt these methods. In 2023, Seales launched the ambitious Vesuvius Challenge alongside entrepreneurs Nat Friedman and Daniel Gross, inviting scientists to take a crack at recovering sections of the Herculaneum scrolls.The Oxford scroll reflects a major breakthrough in the challenge, made possible due to the unique chemical composition of the scrolls ink. Scientists think the ink may contain a denser contaminant (potentially lead) that allows the text to be more legible than other Herculaneum scrolls when subjected to X-ray scans.An image of the scroll was created by X-ray scans at the Diamond Light Source, the U.K.s national synchrotron science facility synchrotron refers to a type of circular particle accelerator that can produce extremely bright beams of light, giving a non-invasive view of the scrolls contents. From here, scientists used AI to trace the scrolls ink and unravel the letters that were written.Translating the ScrollsSince the AI did not have a complete understanding of language and the specific characters within the scroll, its up to scientists to translate the revealed lines themselves. This effort has already yielded one word: an Ancient Greek word that means disgust, appearing twice in different columns of text.In 2023, a word from a separate Herculaneum scroll was deciphered from letters found by Luke Farritor, a student at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln at the time. The word, experts concluded, was the Ancient Greek word for purple. Together, Farritor, Egyptian student Youssef Nader, and Swiss student Julian Schilliger won the 2023 Vesuvius Challenge grand prize of $700,000 for revealing 15 partial columns of text in a scroll owned by the Institut de France. The scroll is believed to contain philosophical text related to the Epicurean school of philosophy.The Vesuvius Challenge is set to move forward at full steam. Scientists involved with the project are determined to improve the technology that will allow them to scan more scrolls and map their surfaces (in a process called segmentation). Looking to the future, the leaders of the challenge ultimately hope to inspire further excavation at the Villa of the Papyri, as experts believe secrets of the library are still waiting to be unearthed. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Getty. Buried by VesuviusDiamond Light Source. Uncovering ancient text from the Oxford Herculaneum scrollJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.
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  • Rat Populations Rise as Climate Change Warms Larger Cities
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    Rat infestations are increasing all around the world, and scientists suggest that climate change may be to blame. Publishing their results in a recent Science Advances article, a team of researchers analyzed rat populations in 16 cities from around the world, including New York, Boston, and Washington, D.C. Their analysis one of the first to assess rat populations at such scale revealed that the cities that saw bigger bumps in temperatures were also the cities that saw bigger bumps in rats. Cities experiencing greater temperature increases over time saw larger increases in rats, the study stated. Warming temperatures and more people living in cities may be expanding the seasonal activity periods and food availability.Tracking Rats In cities around the world, rats pose a problem. Destroying infrastructure and consuming and contaminating food, these rodents are also vectors for pathogens and parasites, capable of spreading over 50 different infectious agents to humans.Scientists suspect that the number of rats in cities is increasing. But scientific surveys into the trends in rat populations are rare. Scurrying out of sight, in tight spaces and sewers, rats are tough to spot, making it almost impossible to assess whether rat control strategies, which differ from city to city, work.To reveal whether rat populations are actually increasing, a team of researchers turned to public complaints and inspection information valuable proxies for the population of rodents in a particular area. Tracking these sightings across 16 cities for an average of 12.2 years, they found that 11 out of 16 cities (or 69 percent) saw increases in rats, while 3 out of 16 cities (or 19 percent) saw decreases.Read More: Is it Time to Change Tack in the War on Rats?Increase in Temperature, Increase in RatsOf all 16 cities, Washington, D.C. saw the largest increases in rat sightings, which were around 3 times bigger than those in Boston and 1.5 times bigger than those in New York.Running the numbers on the increases, the researchers found that around 40 percent of the rise in rodent sightings was tied to the increase in temperatures relative to long-term averages. In other words, around 40 percent of the rise was tied to warmer weather, which may provide rats more opportunities to forage for food and reproduce. Warmer temperatures, particularly during cooler seasons of the year, may release rats from physio-thermal limitations, the study stated. This can be due to a combination of lower winter mortality, longer periods of aboveground activity and foraging, and increased fecundity.Read More: How to Coexist with Coyotes in Your NeighborhoodMaking Space and Food For RatsBeyond temperatures, the researchers found that other factors were associated with rat sightings, too: While increasing urbanization was linked to approximately 34 percent of the population boom in the rodents, increasing population density was linked to approximately 19 percent. This may be related to both the habitat preferences of rats and food availability, the study stated. As cities urbanize and increase in density, more buildings and underground utilities become spaces for rats, and more food becomes available for rodents to eat.According to the researchers, warming, urbanization, and population density are all set to increase in the coming years, amplifying the need for cities to implement new strategies for rat management. Given the projections of continued warming for the foreseeable future, cities need to be prepared for the potential for this warming to exacerbate current rodent pest infestation levels, the study stated.Rather than removing the rodents that are already in cities, the strongest rat management strategies tend to make city survival more challenging, removing the trash and the clutter on which rats rely. The management of urban rats will need to focus on aggressive strategies that cities can implement to slow the increase of rat numbers, the study stated. If not, well, well all need to warm up to the idea of a world with more rats. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Infection Ecology & Epidemiology. Rat-Borne Diseases at the Horizon. A Systematic Review on Infectious Agents Carried by Rats in Europe 19952016Sam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.
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  • Air Pollution Is Damaging Your Brain Faster Than You Think
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    When it comes to pressing environmental issues, air pollution is a common concern. The effects of air pollution on human health, specifically cardiovascular and respiratory systems, are well known. But have you ever wondered what it might be doing to your brain?A research team from the Universities of Birmingham and Manchester asked this exact question and discovered that even short-term exposure to air pollution can have surprising and long-lasting effects on our ability to perform daily activities.Studying the Effects of PollutionThe specific type of pollution at the forefront of this study, published in Nature Communications, is particulate matter (PM) air pollution. PM air pollution is a mixture of solid particulates and liquid droplets in the air and includes things like dust, smoke, and soot.Study participants were split into two groups and exposed to either PM air pollution or clean air. Researchers simulated PM air pollution by using controlled candle smoke. A number of breathing techniques were also used, including whatever the participants considered to be their normal breathing patterns and breathing only through the mouth or nose.Participants had their cognitive abilities tested before exposure and then again four hours after exposure. The research team measured specific cognitive abilities like working memory, selective attention, emotion recognition, psychomotor speed, and sustained attention.What Is Pollution Doing to Our Brains?The results suggest that short-term exposure to PM air pollution drastically affects peoples ability to do things like perform routine tasks and interpret emotions.Dr. Thomas Faherty, a co-author of the study, noted in a press release that the study provides compelling evidence that even short-term exposure to particulate matter can have immediate negative effects on brain functions essential for daily activities.Of all the cognitive functions measured, two in particular stood out: selective attention and emotion recognition. In the group exposed to PM air pollution, both of these areas showed a decline in function no matter how participants breathed in the contaminated air.Selective attention plays an important role in decision making and goal-oriented behavior, while emotion recognition allows us to behave in socially-acceptable ways and helps us detect and interpret emotions in ourselves and others.The study uses the very common task of grocery shopping to help explain how the negative impacts of PM air pollution on cognitive functions can affect our daily lives. For example, impaired selective attention can make it difficult to prioritize items on your shopping list and, instead, leave you more vulnerable to impulse buying.There are also major impacts on our ability to do our jobs if something like our commute to work or a short walk at lunchtime can cause temporary cognitive decline. Beyond just losing attention span and the capacity to effectively focus on tasks, a decrease in emotion recognition can make it extremely difficult to work with other people and to behave appropriately in meetings and other social spaces.But it isnt all bad news. Certain cognitive functions, like working memory, showed no decline after exposure to PM air pollution. This result proves that some brain functions are quite resilient and are able to avoid the inflammation caused by pollution that researchers believe is responsible for the observed negative reactions.Read More: Combat Cognitive Decline With These 5 ActivitiesRegulations and Research Are NeededOverall, this study highlights that further research is needed on the connections between PM air pollution and cognitive functions.What is clear is that, as pollution continues to get worse in heavily-populated urban areas, stricter air quality regulations and public health measures must be enforced to avoid significant impacts on economic growth and to help keep our brains healthy.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:As the marketing coordinator at Discover Magazine, Stephanie Edwards interacts with readers across Discover's social media channels and writes digital content. Offline, she is a contract lecturer in English & Cultural Studies at Lakehead University, teaching courses on everything from professional communication to Taylor Swift, and received her graduate degrees in the same department from McMaster University. You can find more of her science writing in Lab Manager and her short fiction in anthologies and literary magazine across the horror genre.
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  • First Kangaroo Embryo Produced Using IVF Could Be Crucial for Conservation
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    From jumping kangaroos to sleepy koalas to sturdy wombats, Australia is full of a variety of marsupials animals that carry their premature young in a skin pouch until they are fully developed. However, just because many marsupials live in Australia doesnt mean theyre always thriving.A research team led by the University of Queensland in Australia has successfully produced the first kangaroo embryos through in vitro fertilization (IVF). According to the team, this could be a big leap towards preventing other marsupials from going extinct. The findings have been published in Reproduction, Fertility and Development.Australia is home to the greatest diversity of marsupial fauna on the planet, but it also has the highest mammal extinction rate, said Andres Gambini, lead researcher of the study, in a press release. Our ultimate goal is to support the preservation of endangered marsupial species like koalas, Tasmanian devils, northern hairy-nosed wombats, and Leadbeater's possums.Read More: Rebooting Rhinos with Frozen Sperm and IVFProducing Animal EmbryosThe researchers used eastern gray kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) for the study because they are abundant. For this specific trial, the kangaroos that produced the eggs were already deceased.The team then analyzed the development of the kangaroos eggs and sperm in the lab before producing the embryos through intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). Through this method, researchers would inject the sperm into a mature egg. After a few days, they began to see promising results.This success with kangaroo embryos is deeply fulfilling, representing the culmination of years of training, research, and collaboration, Gambini said in a press release.This isnt the first time researchers have been able to grow animal embryos using IFV successfully. The researchers adopted the model from a process that was already used with human IVF, along with cattle and pigs.Also, in early 2024, researchers announced the IVF pregnancy of the endangered northern white rhino. Though the surrogate mother died from an infection not related to the IVF, reseachers noted that the fetus was developing well, and there would have likely been a 95 percent chance of a successful birth. In 2020, cheetah cubs born at the Columbus Zoo in Ohio were the result of IVF and embryo transfer. The kangaroo success is the first step in a long journey. The team now hopes that they will be able to see a healthy and successful birth of a marsupial through IVF, but are aware of the risks. Until then, the researchers are working towards building reliable preservation methods to keep the embryos safe.We are now refining techniques to collect, culture, and preserve marsupial eggs and sperm, said Gambini in a press release. By developing preservation methods, we aim to safeguard the genetic material of these unique and precious animals for future use to ensure their conservation.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Reproduction, Fertility and Development. Successful production of kangaroo ICSI embryosBritannica. marsupialColumbus Zoo and Aquarium. Cheetah Cubs at Columbus Zoo and Aquarium are First Ever Born via In Vitro Fertilization and Embryo TransfersA graduate of UW-Whitewater, Monica Cull wrote for several organizations, including one that focused on bees and the natural world, before coming to Discover Magazine. Her current work also appears on her travel blog and Common State Magazine. Her love of science came from watching PBS shows as a kid with her mom and spending too much time binging Doctor Who.
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  • Caligulas Secret Garden Found: A Glimpse into the Roman Emperors Extravagance
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    Deep beneath the streets of Rome near the Vatican, overlooking the banks of the Tiber River, Italian archaeologists have uncovered a hidden gem of Roman history Caligulas secret garden. This 2,000-year-old marvel, buried for centuries, offers a rare glimpse into one of Rome's most infamous rulers. Known for his excesses and controversial reign, the discovery of Caligulas Garden not only illuminates his world but also sheds light on the opulence of ancient Roman life.Read More: 5 of the Most Ruthless Rulers in Ancient HistoryWho Was Caligula?Born Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus in A.D. 12, Caligula rose to power in A.D. 37 as the third Roman emperor. Nicknamed Caligula, meaning little boots, after the miniature soldier footwear he wore as a child, he is one of the most debated figures in Roman history. Early accounts describe his early rule as promising, but his reign quickly turned notorious. Stories of tyranny, extravagant spending, and bizarre behavior have cemented his legacy as a symbol of decadence and madness. He is said to have declared himself a living god, squandered the empires wealth on lavish projects, and engaged in acts of cruelty and debauchery. Strange anecdotes, like appointing his horse Incitatus as a priest or consul, further reveal the extent of his eccentricity. However, some historians argue that these tales may have been exaggerated by political enemies, particularly after his death.Incitatus (Credit: Sammy33/Shutterstock)The Discovery of Caligulas GardenNestled near the foundations of what is now the Vatican, the discovery of Caligulas garden represents an important find for archaeologists. The site was part of a pleasure garden complex thought to be owned by the emperor, which is supported by the writings of Philo of Alexandria. He tells of how he and his delegation were received by Caligula in A.D. 40 at a vast garden overlooking the Tiber River. The similarity between the remains found and the description of the Alexandrian historian suggest that the recently excavated garden is the site of the meeting, according to a statement from the Italian Ministry of Culture. The ruins, which were unearthed by construction crews working on a new overpass at Piazza Pia in Rome, include a travertine wall, the foundations of a colonnaded portico, and a large open garden area. The archaeologists also uncovered a lead water pipe with the inscription: C(ai) Csaris Aug(usti) Germanici, which researchers determined the translation to Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, or Caligula. In addition to the structures and the lead water pipe, archaeologists unearthed slabs of Roman-era pottery and terracotta plates depicting mythological scenes, which likely adorned rooftops or garden structures. Read More: The Hierarchy of the 1,200-Year-Long Roman EmpireThe Importance of Caligulas GardenThe unearthing of this garden sheds a bit of light on the personal life of a ruler often remembered for his darker deeds. It also demonstrates his and the Romans deep appreciation for nature and aesthetics. The garden likely wasnt only a display of wealth it was a place of respite. However, lavish gardens like these were also regularly used to project power and divine favor, possibly reinforcing the emperors self-image of a god-like figure.How Did Caligula Die?Caligulas reign came to an abrupt end on January 24 in A.D. 41, when he was assassinated by members of the Praetorian Guard. Troubled and concerned by his erratic behavior, financial mismanagement, and disregard for traditional Roman values are thought to have fueled the plot against him. By some reports, he was killed alongside his wife and baby daughter.What the Garden Tells Us About Roman SocietyThe discovery of Caligulas Garden offers a fascinating glimpse into the lives of Romes elite. These gardens werent just places to admire exotic plants they were centers of power, entertainment, and social gatherings. Emperors and aristocrats used them to display their wealth, host lavish events and even conduct political business in locations that showcased their status and power. By studying the remnants of spaces like this, archaeologists can gain deeper insight into the cultural and social priorities of the ancient Roman elite, revealing how luxury and influence were intertwined in their daily lives.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:History Collection. Mad, Bad & Dangerous to Know: 5 Things You Should Know About CaligulaPBS. The Roman EmpireThe Conversation. Mythbusting Ancient Rome Caligulas HorseHistory. 7 Things You May Not Know About CaligulaMinestero della Cultura. Giubileo, a piazza Pia emergono strutture di et Giulio-Claudia e il portico di CaligolaUniversity of Reading. Walking, talking and showing off a history of Roman gardens
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  • A Swarm of Cyborg Insects Might Save You From Disaster
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    Researchers at RIKEN, Japan have created remote controlled cyborg cockroaches, equipped with a tiny wireless control module that is powered by a rechargeable battery attached to a solar cell. (Credit: RIKEN)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsEarthquakes, tornadoes, air strikes all around the world, countless lives are lost not just to the direct impacts of disasters, but those that are trapped in the resulting wreckage. Search and rescue efforts, both professional and amateur, are dangerous in themselves, as digging through rubble creates risk for secondary collapse and exposure to hazardous materials. Meanwhile time is short, and the larger the affected area, the harder it is to search efficiently and effectively. Dogs can sniff out people, but these specialized pooches are often rare compared to the vast footprint of the wreckage. A team of scientists out of Singapore and Japan believe they have a rather unconventional tool to offer search-and-rescue efforts: swarms of cyborg cockroaches. The research is published in Nature Communications.Developing Cyborg InsectsFor the last two decades, researchers have been developing technology that allows them to remotely control live insects through implants to their nervous systems. Early work developed remote-controlled flying beetles (Mecynorrhina torquata), and quickly expanded to include Madagascar hissing cockroaches (Gromphadorhina portentosa). I have communicated with rescue teams and found that they urgently need insect-sized vehicles capable of traversing small openings in rubble to locate humans trapped in disasters, says Hirotaka Sato, professor at Nanyang Technological University, who has long led this work.Early in 2025, Satos team announced a new breakthrough that brings the tech one step closer to launch: A new algorithm that can be used to deploy a swarm of the insects to navigate through unknown terrain and identify the locations of humans. Remote-Controlled InsectsHow do you make a cyborg cockroach? Apparently, the process only takes 15 to 20 minutes, the researchers say. While the insect is anesthetized with CO2, an ultra-thin silver wire is inserted into each cerci taillike sensory appendages (picture the tail end of an earwig or cricket) as well as into each antennae and a tiny hole cut into its second abdominal segment. These electrodes connect to a tiny backpack, 1.5 cm on a side, affixed to its back.Sending an electrical current through the abdomen and one antenna signals the roach to turn in the opposite direction. A similar signal sent through the cerci signals it to speed up. It takes less than a second of stimulus to elicit the response.These living cyborgs have a number of advantages over tiny robots. Theyre more energy-efficient, fueled by their own metabolism rather than the battery pack youd need to run a machine. Cockroaches are famously hardy, and this species can survive at least a week, if not more, without food or water (dont worry: these cyborgs are well-fed on a diet of carrots and apples). And when it comes to navigating difficult terrain, a cockroach doesnt need to be programmed to move over, under, and around obstacles in its path. Despite decades of advancements in robotics, miniature vehicles remain impractical due to high power consumption for locomotion and structural fragility, explains Sato. To address this challenge, we developed the concept of using living insects as a platform cyborg insects.Cyborg Search-And-RescueSending individual cockroaches into rubble like RC Cars couldbe helpful for a search-and-rescue team, but the potential impact of the cyborgs is multiplied when a larger swarm can be deployed to cover more ground. To develop the swarming capabilities of the cyborgs, Satos team worked with Naoki Wakamiya at Osaka University and Masaki Ogura at Hiroshima University, both leading experts in swarming control algorithms, as a part of Japans national research program, MOONSHOT.The concept of using the behavior of social insects to inspire algorithms dates back over 30 years, initially applied to software agents rather than physical robots.In general, you cannot say insects are programmed, but the result of evolution is that they are good at doing things that maximize the probability of their reproduction, says Marco Dorgio, research director for the Belgian Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique and co-director of the artificial intelligence research laboratory (IRIDIA) at the Universit Libre de Bruxelles, and was not involved in this study. Controlling the SwarmIn their new system, the researchers designate one cyborg in the swarm as the leader and the rest as followers. This provides a general direction for the group while allowing individuals to choose their own paths through the uneven terrain. Each cyborg can detect the location of its nearest neighbors and the leader, while only the leader knows the location of the groups destination.The benefits of this swarm are greater than the sum of its parts. Because the insects have free motion when theyre in the group, they naturally avoid obstacles that have caused others to slow down, and they wont pile up on each other. They can even help each other get unstuck or flip an overturned comrade rightside-up the insects instinctively will grab onto a passerby to right themselves. This system also reduces the need for guiding the cockroaches at all by 50 percent, the researchers report. The time spent in free motion while inside the swarm is meaningful, reducing the battery power needed in the control backpacks and reducing the likelihood of habituation to the signals. The researchers are continuing their work to refine their swarming algorithms and control systems. They hope that their cockroach rescue teams may soon scuttle their way from the lab into disaster zones, helping emergency responders locate survivors in the rubble faster and more efficiently than ever before. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Reuters. Searching for life in the rubbleNature Communications. Swarm navigation of cyborg-insects in unknown obstructed soft terrainBlue Zoo. Hissing Cockroaches1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In
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  • Particularly Resilient Bacteria Are the Reason Why Antibiotics Can Fail
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    The conventional wisdom on why some antibiotics dont work rests on the concept of persistence. A small subset of bacteria sometimes hides out and escapes the effects of the drugs meant to kill them. These persisters can then come back with a vengeance and may no longer respond to the same antibiotic, the theory goes.For example, antibiotics are only partially effective against infections caused by the Salmonella bacteria. The persistence of that infection can lead to other conditions, such as typhoid fever.Researchers from the University of Basel challenge the persisters theory in a Nature article. If their theory holds true, scientists developing new antibiotics to mop up those recalcitrant bugs may want to reconsider their approach.The Persistence of BacteriaContrary to widespread belief, antibiotic failure is not caused by a small subset of persisters. In fact, the majority of Salmonella in infected tissues are difficult to kill, Dirk Bumann, a researcher from the University of Basels Biozentrum, said in a press release. We have been able to demonstrate that standard laboratory tests of antimicrobial clearance produce misleading results, giving a false impression of a small group of particularly resilient persisters.For many years, researchers believed that a small subset of dormant bacteria are the main problem in fighting infections. These so-called persisters can survive antibiotic treatment and cause relapses later. Researchers worldwide have been working on new therapies aimed at targeting and eliminating these sleeping bacteria. In a new study, Dirk Bumanns team from the Biozentrum of the University of Basel challenges the prevailing concept that persisters are the cause of antibiotic ineffectiveness. So, if natural persistence doesnt keep pesky bacteria around, what does?To find out, the Swiss team monitored how both mice and tissue-mimicking lab models affected Salmonella survival. They suspect that, when the body fights an infection, it reduces the number of nutrients available to the invader.Nutrition Plays Role in Bacteria SurvivalWhy would this be a bad thing? If bacteria need nourishment to survive, wouldnt limiting or cutting it off also take out the bacteria? The answer is counter intuitive.Under nutrient-scarce conditions, bacteria grow very slowly, Bumann said. This may seem good at first, but is actually a problem because most antibiotics only gradually kill slowly growing bacteria. As a result, the bacteria hang around, even though they are under attack. For the study, the scientists monitored antibiotic action in single bacteria in real time. They observed that a large amount of the entire Salmonella population survived the treatment not just a small subset of persisters.By contrast, previous methods that measure bacterial survival against antibiotics have used indirect and delayed measurements, as opposed to the Swiss groups real time approach. This has produced distorted or inaccurate results for years. Those results have falsely fed the persister narrative.As a result, Bumann would like to see antibiotic resistance research emphasis shift. There should be more attention paid to bacterial nutrition and less on rooting out the persisters, Bumann said. Researchers will need to change both the technology they use and the assumptions about what they are looking at.In a few years, modern methods like real-time single-cell analysis will hopefully become standard, Bumann said.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.
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  • Meteorites From the Earliest Planets Reveal How Earth Lost Certain Elements
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    A medley of elements make life on Earth possible, yet the ways in which our planet has gained them and lost some in the process have been on scientists minds for years. The major building blocks of life, like water, carbon, and nitrogen, often take center stage, but scientists have recently made sense of another foundational component in Earths framework moderately volatile elements (MVEs).MVEs, containing such elements as zinc and copper, work in tandem with life-essential elements like oxygen and carbon to form the basis of planetary chemistry. However, MVEs are not as abundant as they once were on Earth. In a new study published in the journal Science Advances, researchers have figured out how our planets MVEs were depleted over time, detailing a crucial chapter in Earths early history.Meteorites From the Early Solar SystemIn the study, the researchers sought to understand what led to Earth and Mars containing significantly fewer MVEs than chondrites, which are primitive meteorites that hold clues about planetary formation during the dawn of the solar system.To find answers, the researchers turned to iron meteorites remnants of the metallic cores of the earliest planetary building blocks. These budding celestial bodies, otherwise known as planetesimals, are thought to be the initial form of Earth and other planets in the solar system, developing around 4.6 billion years ago as dust particles coalesced.We found conclusive evidence that first-generation planetesimals in the inner solar system were unexpectedly rich in these elements, said Damanveer Grewal, a professor of experimental cosmochemistry and geochemistry at Arizona State University and lead author of the study, in a statement. This discovery reshapes our understanding of how planets acquired their ingredients.How MVEs Went MissingPreviously, many scientists believed that MVEs were diminished on Earth because they never fully condensed in the early solar system or escaped during planetesimal differentiation differentiation describes the assembly of planetary materials into layers; the process of differentiation on Earth, for example, caused the heaviest materials (like iron and nickel) to sink and manifest into a molten core, while less-dense silicates formed a mantle and the lightest silicates formed a thin crust.The study established that differentiation, however, was not responsible for the loss of MVEs. Instead, early planetesimals retained their MVEs even during differentiation. This means the original materials that eventually developed into Earth and Mars lost their MVEs later on in the formation process, during a period of violent collisions between small cosmic bodies that caused the planets to expand.A New Planetary TheoryThe researchers determined that many inner solar system planetesimals kept MVE abundances (similar to the high concentration of MVEs found in chondrites) as they accumulated more material for growth and experienced differentiation. In this case, the planetesimal that was the beginning stage of Earth didnt drop its MVEs at the start of its development. Instead, the loss of its MVEs occurred over a prolonged period of time, setting the stage for the chemical composition of Earth.Our work redefines how we understand the chemical evolution of planets, said Grewal. It shows that the building blocks of Earth and Mars were originally rich in these life-essential elements, but intense collisions during planetary growth caused their depletion.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:World Economic Forum. Visualizing the abundance of elements in the Earths crustThe American Museum of Natural History. The Differentiated EarthJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.
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  • An Antarctic Fossil From 69 Million Years Ago Reveals Earths Early Birds
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    The ancestors of modern waterfowl werent all that odd. Diving for fish and other prey in the waters of Antarctica, they looked like todays birds, but were they truly modern?A new paper published today in Nature tells us all about these ancestors of modern-day ducks. Assessing a newly found fossil of Vegavis iaai from the Late Cretaceous around 69 million years ago, the paper confirms the classification of the species as a truly modern bird, not wholly unlike the ducks and geese of today.Few birds are as likely to start as many arguments among paleontologists as Vegavis, said Christopher Torres, a study author and a now-professor at the University of the Pacific, according to a press release. This new fossil is going to resolve a lot of those arguments. Chief among them: Where is Vegavis perched in the bird tree of life?Modern or Not?Around 20 years ago, a team of paleontologists identified Vegavis iaai for the first time, citing a fossil from Antarctica, around 68 million years to 66 million years old. At the time of the identification, the paleontologists classified the species as a modern bird, but their classification has been controversial and tricky to confirm since. Part of the problem was that all of the fossils that paleontologists had to work with were partial fossils featuring skeletons without skulls. But the newly found fossil changes all that, featuring what the previously found fossils lack. Collected in Antarctica in 2011 as part of the Antarctic Peninsula Paleontology Project, the 69-million-year-old specimen is an almost complete skull, providing new insights into the species classification. Featuring a modern-shaped beak and a modern-shaped space for a brain with traits that are consistent with those of waterfowl today, the fossil suggests that the initial classification of Vegavis is a correct one, with the Late-Cretaceous fossil representing one of the earliest modern birds ever discovered. A Not-So-Odd BirdAccording to the authors of the new paper, the other birds that were around 69 million years ago were strange and not so similar to the birds of today.Places with any substantial fossil record of Late Cretaceous birds, like Madagascar and Argentina, reveal an aviary of bizarre, now-extinct species with teeth and long bony tails, only distantly related to modern birds, said Patrick OConnor, a study author and a professor at Ohio University, according to the release. Something very different seems to have been happening in the far reaches of the Southern Hemisphere, specifically in Antarctica.Unlike the Antarctic of today, Late-Cretaceous Antarctica was warmer and wetter, with temperate weather and lush vegetation. How this environment shaped early birds into modern birds is hard to say exactly, though it is possible that it established some of the traits seen in modern waterfowl today. This fossil underscores that Antarctica has much to tell us about the earliest stages of modern bird evolution, OConnor said in the release.Beyond its insights into the evolution of the earliest modern birds, the new paper also paints a picture of how Vegavis lived. The bird was able to propel itself through Antarctic waters in pursuit of fish and other prey thanks to its powerful feet, and it snapped them up thanks to its powerful jaws, a feeding strategy thats more similar to a modern loon than a modern duck.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Sam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.
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