Dwelling beneath the soil in the American Southwest are coccidioides fungus spores (C. immitis, C. posadasii). Inhaling these spores can lead to valley fever, also known as coccidioidomycosis. While this fungal infection is nothing akin to the spores seen in the series and video game, The Last of Us, an infection from coccidioides can lead to serious medical issues. Because valley fever is isolated to areas with low rainfall and hot summers, like the American Southwest, and parts of Mexico and Central and South America, it doesn’t quite get the attention that other diseases, such as Lyme’s disease, get. However, researchers in Arizona are using data to help find better ways to treat and prevent valley fever. How Do You Get Valley Fever, and Is It Contagious? (Image Credit: NS Picasso/Shutterstock) Coccidioidomycosis, or valley fever, is not contagious. The infection can't pass from human to human. The only way one contracts valley fever is by inhaling spores of the coccidioides fungus.The spores live under the soil but the air from wind, farming, and construction can pick it up. Once airborne, if humans, along with other animals such as dogs, coyotes, rats, horses, sheep, cows, bats, and snakes, breath in the spores, an infection can start. Unfortunately, dogs can be hit relatively hard with this infection. According to VCA Animal Hospitals, this could be because dogs are often sniffing around, and they could possibly inhale a larger number of spores. Treating dogs for valley fever could take 6 to 12 months, and in some cases, they may have to be on medication for the rest of their lives. Symptoms of Valley FeverIf you contract valley fever, you’ll start to notice symptoms about one to three weeks after exposure. In most cases, you’ll notice flu-like symptoms, such as fatigue, fever, and chills. Typically, the infection goes away on its own. However, in some cases, it can escalate. This could depend on your overall immune system and wellness, or how many spores were inhaled. If symptoms worsen, it’s best to seek treatment immediately. Even with treatment, it’s possible to develop chronic coccidioidomycosis, a type of pneumonia, according to the Mayo Clinic. In these severe cases, medical professionals will likely prescribe an anti-fungal treatment that can last 3 to 6 months. The more severe the symptoms, however, the more crucial it is to seek out medical attention. In some cases, you may be hospitalized. In even rarer cases, this infection can develop into a severe case of disseminated coccidioidomycosis, where the infection spreads from the lungs to other parts of the body, including the skin, liver, brain, and heart. Symptoms can include swollen joints, ulcers and skin lesions, and meningitis. Stopping the SpreadResearchers from Arizona State University, led by Dave Engelthaler, are collecting and analyzing data to better understand the spread of coccidioides fungus spores. Using data from the Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen), Engelthaler led a 2024 study that looked at the number of coccidioides spores found in air filters around Phoenix, Arizona. According to the study, the spore counts didn’t spike during dust storms but did increase during very hot, dry days with high winds. The researchers also found that the spores were not distributed evenly throughout the area. From the data, Engelthaler hopes this could be a starting point to track and monitor the spread of coccidioides and how environmental factors play a role. He also hopes to use modern technology to map out and model how the fungus spreads, which could lead to better prevention methods.This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:The University of Arizona. About Valley FeverVAC Animal Hospitals. Valley Fever in DogsMayo Clinic. Valley feverCDC. Treatment of Valley FeverArizona State University. Fighting the fungus among us A graduate of UW-Whitewater, Monica Cull wrote for several organizations, including one that focused on bees and the natural world, before coming to Discover Magazine. Her current work also appears on her travel blog and Common State Magazine. Her love of science came from watching PBS shows as a kid with her mom and spending too much time binging Doctor Who.

The need for Alzheimer’s prevention is growing. About 7 million people in the U.S. now live with the disease, with estimates climbing to 13 million by 2050. The estimated annual cost of care for Alzheimer’s and other dementias could rise from $360 billion to almost $1 trillion over that time period, according to the Alzheimer’s Association.One class of HIV drug shows promise in preventing Alzheimer’s disease, according to an article in Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association.Scientists arrived at the finding serendipitously. While studying how a class of drugs used to treat HIV works, researchers noticed that they also impacted mechanisms involved in the onset of Alzheimer’s disease.Analyzing HIV TreatmentOnce the researchers made that connection, they turned to two databases. They scoured them for patients being treated with a class of HIV drugs called nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), which prevent the HIV virus from replicating in the body. They searched decades of data for people who were both being treated with various HIV medications and were 50 years or older. They excluded people diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease.They found more than 270,000 subjects who met those criteria from two sources: 24 years of patient data within the U.S. Veterans Health Administration Database and 14 years of data for commercially insured patients. Then they compared how many people developed Alzheimer’s between those taking NRTIs and people who were prescribed other HIV medication. Even after screening out factors like potential pre-existing conditions, they found the difference “significant and substantial,” according to the paper. In one set of patients, risk of developing Alzheimer’s decreased 6 percent every year the patients took NRTIs. In the other, the annual decrease was 13 percent.Potential Alzheimer's Prevention “Our results suggest that taking these drugs could prevent approximately 1 million new cases of Alzheimer’s disease every year,” Jayakrishna Ambati, a researcher with University of Virginia School of Medicine and an author of the study, said in a press release.The researchers note that patients taking other types of HIV medications did not show the same reduction in Alzheimer’s risk as those on NRTIs. Based on that, they say that NRTIs warrant clinical testing to determine their ability to ward off Alzheimer’s.This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Read More: The 4 Main Types of DementiaArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Compost is known for helping the environment by putting waste to good use, but in an unexpected way, it may also give rise to more effective chemotherapy treatments. According to new research, it turns out that bacteria found in compost harbor a type of protein that can be used for improved drug delivery.A recent study published in the journal Angewandte Chemie International Edition details a promising method in which protein cages can be modified to transport drugs. Having shown success during in vitro tests, this process could soon allow for enhanced drug delivery within the body and reduce the side effects of chemotherapy drugs. The Role of ProteinsProteins are among the most important components in our bodies, performing a repertoire of tasks that keep us alive and healthy; mainly working in cells, they drive metabolism, support the immune system, and strengthen muscles. Variation in amino acids — the building blocks of proteins — determines how a protein will act and what its primary job will be. “Nearly everything that happens in a cell, from building its protective membranes to producing energy, requires a protein,” said study author Taylor Szyszka, a postdoctoral researcher in synthetic biology at the University of Sydney, in a statement.Some proteins take the form of hollow, spherical structures called protein cages, acting as protective containers that deliver materials to cells. The new study focuses on encapsulins, a subgroup of protein cages that grant cargo extra protection from threats and prevent it from escaping. Packaging a Protein CageResearchers involved with the study found a way to unlock the potential of an encapsulin that was originally discovered in bacteria from a compost heap in 2019. By fusing this encapsulin to another protein, they were able to add drug molecules before the structure could assemble. If the encapsulin had assembled before adding cargo, it would have been unable to hold or transport drugs. The researchers packed the encapsulin with doxorubicin (a chemotherapy drug used to treat various cancers), which triggered the structure’s assembly in vitro (outside a living organism).Since doxorubicin is a fluorescent drug, the fluorescent signal that the researchers saw once they loaded the encapsulin told them the test was a success.“This is a first,” said Szyszka in the press release. "Until now, it hasn’t been possible for encapsulins to efficiently load drugs. Previously, this could happen only by pulling encapsulins apart, loading them with a drug, and then reassembling them, a messy process which compromises the encapsulin’s stability.”Improving Chemotherapy Drug Delivery The results of the study offer hope for a more precise way of delivering cytotoxic drugs, commonly used in chemotherapy to kill cancer cells. Treatment with these drugs often causes side effects like nausea, hair loss, and fatigue. Improving the delivery of drugs to the correct site in the body could help lessen these side effects.While protein cages are mostly touted as an option for cancer treatment, scientists have targeted other uses for them as well: They could potentially be used to modulate immune responses, treat skin conditions like pigmentation disorders, and deliver therapeutics through the eye. Next, researchers hope to refine the encapsulin used in the study so it can aim for specific destinations in the body. For example, if the encapsulin holds a drug meant to treat liver disease, it should be able to head for liver cells. “We’ve built the car, now we need to learn how to drive it,” concluded Szyszka in the press release. This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Angewandte Chemie International Edition. High-Fidelity In Vitro Packaging of Diverse Synthetic Cargo into Encapsulin Protein CagesNIH. DoxorubicinJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.

The end Cretaceous Northern Hemisphere fauna was dominated by Tyrannosaurids (such as Tyrannosaurus rex), hadrosaurs and ceratopsian ornithischian dinosaurs. (Image Credit: Pedro Salas and Sergey Krasovskiy.)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsPaleontologists have long considered Tyrannosaurus rex a North American reptile, but a study now claims that the king of the dinosaurs’ predecessor hailed from the Far East. The cousin megaraptors likely lumbered from one continent to another via land bridge more than 70 million years ago — perhaps in an attempt to beat the heat, according to an article in the journal Royal Society Open Science. The finding is potentially controversial, because paleontologists have long debated T. rex’s origins.Finding T. rex's OriginTo better understand megaraptor mobility, the researchers created mathematical models drawing on the age and location of fossils, the dinosaur evolutionary tree, and climate information. They also accounted for gaps in the fossil record — important because relatively few megaraptors have been identified in Asia, while about 30 T. rex fossils have been discovered in North America.“Our modelling suggests the ‘grandparents’ of T. rex likely came to North America from Asia, crossing the Bering Strait between what is now Siberia and Alaska,” Cassius Morrison, a graduate student at University College London and an author of the paper, said in a press release. “This is in line with past research finding that the T. rex was more closely related to Asian cousins such as the Tarbosaurus than to North American relatives such as Daspletosaurus."Read More: Is the T. Rex Three Different Species?Dinosaur MigrationThe researchers connect dinosaur migration with climate change. They suspect that when the temperature peaked 92 million years ago, megaraptors went on the move. The researchers hypothesize that those dinosaurs were better suited to colder climates, maybe because they were covered in feathers or possessed a warm-blooded body.However, that conclusion may not be universally accepted. The provenance of T. rex has, at times, provoked contentious debates within paleontology. For instance, a study in 2024 claimed that T. rex relative Tyrannosaurus mcraeensis, which was found in New Mexico, predated T. rex by 3 million to 5 million years. The authors of that study say those findings support North American ancestry for T. rex. The authors of the new paper, however, disagree, saying that the T. mcraeensis fossil was dated incorrectly.Until more megaraptor fossils are discovered outside North America, T. rex’s origin story may remain a mystery.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Royal Society Open Science. Rise of the king: Gondwanan origins and evolution of megaraptoran dinosaursBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

A wolf’s howl is one of those unforgettable sounds of nature. Now, this iconic sound is setting a new chapter for wolf conservation, fitting hand-in-hand with monitoring technology.To make sense of what wolf howls mean for an ecosystem, The Colossal Foundation (the non-profit arm of Colossal Biosciences, which recently made headlines for its dire wolf de-extinction project) has announced a partnership with non-profit Yellowstone Forever and the Yellowstone Wolf Project. The collaboration aims to strengthen wolf conservation efforts, using cameras to monitor acoustic (audio) data and AI algorithms to classify howls.The Meanings Behind Wolf SoundsWolves speak to each other with their own canine code that features an assortment of sounds: growls, barks, whines, and other vocalizations can express how a wolf is feeling, whether they’re sensing danger or bonding with their pack. The howl, however, reigns as the most important sound for research.Howling by wolves conveys vital messages that symbolize the solidarity of a pack. Multiple howls often combine to form chorus howls, which grow increasingly complex as more individuals join in concert. These sounds can be heard over five miles away, and they hold more than one meaning; Some howls are meant to check on pack members, while others cast territorial warnings to intruders. A New Angle on Wolf ConservationHowling is like music to conservationists' ears. This especially rings true at Yellowstone National Park, a bastion for wolf conservation ever since the animals began to bounce back across the West in the 1990s. Howls are a crucial part of Yellowstone’s natural soundscape, gauging local ecosystem health. But with howls happening so often, keeping up with them is rigorous work for researchers. Up until now, gathering data from wolves has largely required invasive measures like collaring, when a wolf is anesthetized and fitted with a collar that tracks location data. The partnership announced by The Colossal Foundation promises to imbue new life into wolf conservation with the help of artificial intelligence.The foundation’s support of the Yellowstone Wolf Project — an enduring study that has been going strong since wolves were reintroduced to the park in 1995 — will allow 25 camera units to be deployed near wolf denning sites. The camera technology, called GrizCam (developed by Montana-based Grizzly Systems Inc.), is designed to record 360-degree video footage along with audio data. Understanding Howls with AIMatt James, the Chief Animal Officer at Colossal, says that the value of these cameras comes from the context they provide. For example, a camera can pick up the audio of a howl, and minutes later, it may also record the wolf that howled walking by. This will help researchers understand what direction howls come from and how they’re linked to pack behavior. Real-time monitoring will also give conservationists an opportunity to respond to immediate problems for packs. The cameras can also capture audio of gunshots and tell where they came from, aiding enforcement of wildlife protections at the park. “If we have a sudden change in the landscape, whether a disease came in or a new pack comes in, and it starts to change the territory of our animals or change the population density of our species of interest, then we have real-time capabilities to respond to those things,” says James.The recordings collected by the cameras will then be fed to a team at Colossal that has created a machine-learning algorithm to review massive swaths of acoustic data. The AI models will classify howls, informing the team on key census details regarding pack size and identity. James says that the classifier tool, developed in just two weeks, showed a 92 percent accuracy rate. The tool will continue to be optimized as it receives more data, and James says it will eventually be available for conservationists to use on their own projects.A Cornerstone of BiodiversityWolves in Yellowstone (Image Courtesy of Christopher Klee (Colossal Biosciences))While data collection for this project will continue throughout the year, Colossal is also working to introduce this technology beyond Yellowstone; they’ve committed to establishing a pilot network of GrizCam units on tribal lands across Idaho associated with the Nez Perce Tribe.James believes that wolf conservation hinges on demystifying the animals and tearing down negative assumptions about them. While wolves have been branded as villains in the past, in reality, they play an essential role in ecosystems. When wolves went absent from Yellowstone for much of the 20th century, the ecological web was thrown out of order.“We saw an overabundance of elk, an overgrazing of willow, we saw the rivers changed, we lost beavers,” says James. “They [wolves] are an apex predator, but they’re also a keystone species that have these cascading effects through an ecosystem. Without them, we lose biodiversity.”Read More: Wolves Keep the U.S. Ecosystem in CheckArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:International Wolf Center. How Do Wolves Say Hello?Yellowstone Forever. Yellowstone Wolf ProjectJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.

Everyone who’s watched a police procedural knows that crime scene investigators can link the tiniest bits of organic evidence to a perpetrator though their DNA. A new technique could take DNA’s crime-fighting potential a quantum leap forward: by leveraging it to create a 3D model of the suspect’s face, researchers report in the journal Advanced Science.Their computational tool, called Difface, looks for genetic differences between single letters of the genetic alphabet, known as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). It then clusters related data points into what the researchers call “3D facial point clouds” — essentially, sets of data points that represent the exterior surface of a face. Facial Recognition From DNAResearchers tested the method on a Han Chinese database with SNPs. They demonstrated that Difface could complete an accurate facial reconstruction based on DNA data. Adding information such as age, sex, and body mass index improved the quality of the 3D images. “Amazingly, Difface could generate 3D facial images of individuals solely from their DNA data, projecting their appearance at various future ages,” Luonan Chen, researcher with the Chinese Academy of Sciences and an author of the paper, said in a press release.Although the technique represents a large advance in using genetic technology, it’s not quite as big of a leap as it might at first seem. We already know that the shape of one’s face is determined by genes. We also know how to identify what characteristic — hair or eye color, for instance — a particular gene or set of genes will produce through a technique called DNA phenotyping. Read More: Why We Are Fascinated With Serial KillersChallenges RemainSome challenges still remain before the technique is perfected, though. For instance, identifying different characteristics is harder in people who are more genetically similar.“Validating Difface with datasets from multiple ethnic groups and exploring whether additional genetic loci are necessary for certain facial features will be key steps to ensuring that the model generalizes effectively across diverse populations,” according to the paper.The biggest challenges are the legal and ethical, not technical ones, though. Potential issues include risks to one’s privacy as well as unauthorized data use for constructing various face models.“By enabling the prediction of physical traits from genetic information, DNA phenotyping intensifies concerns about the misuse of sensitive personal data, which could lead to genetic-based discrimination and privacy infringements,” according to the paper.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Advanced Science. De Novo Reconstruction of 3D Human Facial Images from DNA SequenceBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Our DNA contains the functional instructions for all of our cells, from the cells in our brains to the cells in our bones and our blood. But it is only by activating and deactivating different segments of our DNA, or our genes, that our cells take on their specialized functions. This is true for all sorts of organisms, whose cells are differentiated when different genes are switched on and off. In simple organisms, these on-off “switches” are typically situated only a short distance away from the genes that they activate and deactivate. But in complex organisms, these switches are sometimes separated from the genes that they regulate by long lines of DNA letters, sometimes numbering in the tens of thousands.Recent research has found, however, that this long-distance form of gene regulation is actually a lot older than once thought. Published today in Nature, the research reveals that these distant on-off switches likely appeared early on in the evolution of animals, around 700 million years to 650 million years ago, or about 150 million years earlier than previously estimated.Switching Distant Genes On and Off For long-distance gene regulation, or distal regulation, to work, DNA has to be folded or furled into intricate loops. These loops situate separated segments of DNA closer together in 3D space, enabling on-off switches to control genes that are technically tens of thousands of DNA letters away. For a long time, it was hypothesized that this ability arose in animals that appeared around 500 million years ago, helping them specialize their cells for specific functions. But the new Nature research has indicated that distal regulation originated even earlier than that, likely in the common ancestor of all the animals that are alive today.“This creature could repurpose its genetic toolkit in different ways like a Swiss knife, enabling it to refine and explore innovative survival strategies. We did not expect this layer of complexity to be so ancient,” said Iana Kim, the lead study author and a researcher at the Spanish Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG) and the Centro Nacional de’Anàlisis Genòmica (CNAG), according to a press release. Dating the Origins of Distant Gene Switches To trace this innovation back in time, the authors of the new study looked at the gene regulation mechanisms in 11 separate species. Some of these species came from early animal lineages, like the ctenophores, the poriferans, the placozoans, and the cnidarians. These lineages, which contain the comb jellies, the sea sponges, and other ocean creatures such as jellyfish, corals, and sea anemones, comprise some of the Earth’s simplest animals. Other species came from lineages of single-celled organisms that share a common ancestor with all animals today. “You can discover a lot of new biology by looking at weird sea creatures. So far, we had been comparing genome sequences, but thanks to new methods we can now [analyze] which gene regulation mechanisms control genome function across species,” said Arnau Sebe-Pedrós, another study author and a group leader at the CRG, according to the release. Indeed, a new method called Micro-C allowed the study authors to make 3D maps of the DNA of each of the 11 species, which followed the folds of their DNA sequences. While the loops of long-distance gene regulation didn’t appear in the DNA maps of the single-celled organisms, they did appear in the maps of the ctenophores, the placozoans, and the cnidarians, suggesting an origin of distal regulation some 700 million to 650 million years ago. Surprisingly, the study authors also determined that different proteins help structure the DNA loops of different animals. While the looping of later animal lineages (like fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) is organized by CTCF, a protein that helps order different genes into different DNA segments, the loops of earlier animals (like the ctenophores) are organized by a separate protein from the same protein family.“It is impressive that the same problem has been solved using different tools. Thanks to this work, we now know that you can use two different proteins to bring distal DNA [pieces] together in space forming a loop,” said Marc A. Marti-Renom, another study author and a group leader at the CRG and CNAG, according to the release. The study authors stress that their research helps track the evolution of genomic regulation and provides practical insights into the regulatory mechanisms that control cell functions in humans and animals alike.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Sam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.

It’s your trusty kitchen sponge that you use for everything. Whether it’s to clean the dishes, wipe down the counters, or scrub your pots and pans. But research has shown that sponges might not be your best tool in the kitchen. In fact, they harbor more bacteria than almost any other kitchen tool.According to Markus Egert, a microbiologist at Furtwangen University, in Schwarzwald, Germany, used kitchen sponges are colonized by a large diversity of microbes, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. “There’s an entire universe of microbes,” says Egert. In all, 54 billion of them per cubic centimeter.Comparing Your Kitchen Sponges to FecesJust to provide some context, this would be around the same amount of bacteria that one would find in human fecal samples. So basically, your kitchen sponge might be as dirty as feces. “The quality of bacteria would be different, but the amount is similar,” says Egert.In a July 2017 study published in Scientific Reports, Egert and his team found that kitchen sponges were “microbiological hot spots” that “collect and spread bacteria with a probable pathogenic potential.”Surprisingly, Egert also found that if you tried to clean your sponge, you might make it worse than it was before because the sponges contained higher percentages of potentially pathogenic bacteria that could be more likely to spread disease. “We think that this is a kind of selection phenomenon that, by cleaning, you select the more resistant bacteria,” says Egert.Will the Bacteria on a Kitchen Sponge Make You Sick? Much of the bacteria found on kitchen sponges came from environmental sources like water, soil, food, or those from the skin’s surface, says Egert. Egert notes that the bacteria they found weren’t known to make people sick, but that doesn’t mean that they don’t exist on sponges and can spread disease.Trond Møretrø, a microbiologist at Nofima, a leading food research institute in Tromsø, Norway, said that sponges are a haven for bacteria because they sit at room temperature, never dry out, and are covered in food residue. In a September 2022 article he authored in the Journal of Applied Microbiology, his team found that sponges commonly harbor microbes that include more harmless bacteria but also those that can be dangerous, including Salmonella. “The majority of the bacteria that we found were those that don’t make you sick,” says Møretrø.Still, dangerous bacteria like Listeria, Salmonella, and E. coli found in kitchen sponges may be a tool for spreading disease. Even if you don’t eat meat, dangerous bacteria can still spread through raw fruits and vegetables.The Best Way to Clean Your DishesAccording to Møretrø, it’s much better to use a kitchen brush to clean your dishes than it is a kitchen sponge. His January 2021 study, published in the International Journal of Food Microbiology, found that kitchen brushes tended to dry out sooner and “are more hygienic than sponges.”Kitchen brushes work better because they have a handle that keeps your hands safe from contact with potentially dangerous bacteria. Møretrø added bacteria to both sponges and brushes and found that the bacteria died more rapidly on kitchen brushes than they did on sponges, largely because kitchen brushes dry faster at room temperature than sponges do. “When the brushes dry off, the bacteria die,” says Møretrø. You can also increase the temperature of the dish water in the sink so that it’s more likely to kill bacteria if you’re using a brush versus a sponge, because the handle allows you to keep your hands mostly out of the water.  If you choose to use a sponge, you should replace it each time, he adds.So if you’re trying to keep your kitchen free of dangerous bacteria that could cause foodborne disease, a kitchen brush is your best tool.This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:International Journal of Food Microbiology. Bacterial levels and diversity in kitchen sponges and dishwashing brushes used by consumersSara Novak is a science journalist based in South Carolina. In addition to writing for Discover, her work appears in Scientific American, Popular Science, New Scientist, Sierra Magazine, Astronomy Magazine, and many more. She graduated with a bachelor’s degree in Journalism from the Grady School of Journalism at the University of Georgia. She's also a candidate for a master’s degree in science writing from Johns Hopkins University, (expected graduation 2023).

Any chemical that’s called a flavonoid has to taste good. That’s what you’d think, anyway. But some flavonoids are actually famous for their bitter taste, and can cause astringency — the dry, sometimes numbing sensation that’s created in the mouth when we consume certain foods and beverages. But flavonoids aren’t all bad. They’re anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carcinogenic. And a new study shows that that’s not the extent of their health benefits, either. Appearing in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, the study suggests that tasty flavonoid-filled foods and beverages — like black tea, berries, citrus, and apples — could contribute to healthy aging. Specifically, it found that higher consumption of flavonoids could reduce our risk of frailty, poor physical function, and poor mental health as we age. “The goal of medical research is not just to help people live longer but to ensure they stay healthy for as long as possible,” said Nicola Bondonno, a study author and a lecturer at Edith Cowan University, according to a press release. “Our research shows that people who consume more flavonoids tend to age better.”Aging Better with Black Tea or BerriesAs the human lifespan is extended, it is important to ensure that the human healthspan is extended, too. That’s the amount of time that we live happily and healthily, and it’s highly tied to our nutrition. Indeed, our nutrition — and particularly our intake of plant-based foods and beverages — is a crucial factor that contributes to our health as we age, and among the chemical compounds in those foods and beverages that are most implicated in healthy aging are flavonoids.“We know from previous research that people who have a higher flavonoid intake tend to live longer, and they are also less likely to get any of the major chronic diseases such as dementia, diabetes, or heart disease,” Bondonno said in the release.But despite what studies say about flavonoids’ broader health benefits, whether they’re connected to certain aspects of aging, including frailty, poor physical function, and poor mental health, isn’t well researched.Studying past survey responses from over 80,000 female and male participants, Bondonno and a team of researchers took a closer look at this potential connection. The participants’ responses, which were collected periodically over the course of 24 years, included information about their intake of flavonoid-filled foods and beverages and their physical and mental health as they aged. Flavonoid Benefits for Females and MalesThe team’s analysis showed that the consumption of flavonoid-filled foods and beverages was associated with a reduced risk of frailty, poor physical function, and poor mental health. Specifically, females who consumed the most flavonoids were 15 percent less likely to experience frailty than those who consumed the least, and were also 12 percent less likely to experience poor physical function and poor mental health. Meanwhile, males who consumed more flavonoids saw a reduced risk of poor mental health. “Flavonoids are well known for reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, supporting blood vessel health, and even helping to maintain skeletal muscle mass — all of which are important for preventing frailty and maintaining physical function and mental health as we age,” said Aedin Cassidy, another study author and a professor at Queens University Belfast, according to the release.Though clearer connections were found in females than in males, the study stresses that the potential benefits of flavonoids for aging should not be dismissed by either demographic. That’s because the differences between the associations of females and males may not be the result of a sex-specific distinction, but of a study-specific one, connected to the timing of the survey follow-ups.“Overall, these findings underscore the potential for simple dietary modifications to impact overall quality of life and contribute to the [optimization] of healthy aging,” said Eric Rimm, another study author and a professor at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, according to the press release. This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Read More: Microgreens Pack a Macro Nutritional PunchArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Bitter Taste, Phytonutrients, And The ConsumerThe American Journal Of Clinical Nutrition. Associations Between Flavonoid-Rich Food and Flavonoid Intakes and Incident Unhealthy Aging Outcomes in Older United States Males and FemalesSam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.

Climate change could fuel the spread of a fungus that can sicken and even kill people, as well as threaten crops, according to a study posted on the preprint server Research Square.Fungal infections already kill about 1.5 million a year. There are now few effective antifungal agents available, with many fungi developing resistance to them. One particular mold-like fungus called Aspergillus is responsible for most such deaths in the Northern Hemisphere.What Is Aspergillus?Aspergillus is sometimes referred to as a “killer fungus," but that may be a bit of an exaggeration; most people who come into contact with it won’t die.However, people with serious respiratory diseases or who are immuno-compromised may be at risk. In some cases, the fungi’s spores trigger an allergic reaction. Others develop lung infections. In the most serious cases, the infection spreads into the blood vessels.Spreading Fungi SpeciesThe authors studied how three types of Aspergillus could spread across the planet as warming increases. A. fumigatus lives in temperate areas and already has a presence in Europe and North America. It is most closely associated with humans. A. flavus and A. niger both do better in hotter conditions, and are more closely tied to causing plant disease. A. flavus is now most prevalent in India and Pakistan, while A. niger is now most common in the Southern Hemisphere.“We have shown that all three Aspergillus species will move more poleward and become more prevalent in the Northern Hemisphere while the less suitable habitat will be presented across the Southern Hemisphere,” according to the paper. “We show this can potentially impact plant infections and human infections.”The research shows A. fumigatus could expand its territory by 77 percent, if existing warming rates continue. It tends to grow faster at higher temperatures — and the human body possesses just the right level of heat for it to be comfy.Avoiding Fungus ExposureSince A. fumigatus presence is growing, it is difficult to completely dodge exposure. The best way to avoid breathing in the fungi’s spores is to stay clear of construction sites, compost piles and buildings that store grain. People who are immunocompromised may want to wear masks when they suspect they might be in the presence of the fungi. And those who suffer from asthma or cystic fibrosis should see a doctor whenever they notice a change in their breathing. This is a good idea whether or not the suspected cause is A. fumigatus.The best weapon against A. fumigatus may be awareness — because its' already here and appears to be a growing threat. “The spread of fungal species towards the poles due to climate change has already been observed,” according to a researcher profile for co-author Norman van Rhijn, a scientist at the University of Manchester, England.This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Mayo Clinic. AspergillosisBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Researchers from Oregon State University (OSU) have unveiled a novel "electricity-conducting organism” that could spark medical and environmental innovations.According to the new study, published in Applied and Environmental Microbiology, the OSU team has named the organism — a new species of cable bacteria — Ca. Electrothrix yaqonensis, in honor of the Yaqona people, whose ancestral land the new bacteria were found in. The research team hopes that the new discovery could help develop improved biomedical devices as well as new ways to improve food safety and environmental cleanup. An Electric Bacteria Cable bacteria are known for their electric properties, a rare feat among bacteria. They have rod-shaped cells that connect end to end with a shared membrane, which form filaments that can sometimes reach a few centimeters long. Their electric conductivity helps their metabolic processes within the sediment environments they live in. The research team, consisting of Cheng Li, who, at the time, was a postdoctoral researcher at Oregon State University, and Clare Reimers, distinguished professor emerita in the OSU College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, among others, discovered Ca. Electrothrix yaqonensis in sediment in the Yaquina Bay estuary. After analyzing the bacteria, they realized there was something different about it compared to other cable bacteria. “This new species seems to be a bridge, an early branch within the Ca. Electrothrix clade, which suggests it could provide new insights into how these bacteria evolved and how they might function in different environments,” said Li, in a press release. “It stands out from all other described cable bacteria species in terms of its metabolic potential, and it has distinctive structural features, including pronounced surface ridges, up to three times wider than those seen in other species, that house highly conductive fibers made of unique, nickel-based molecules,” Li continued in the release. Bacterial Cleanup Ca. Electrothrix yaqonensis is able to help with reduction-oxidation reactions, especially over greater distances, making it a vital part of the nutrients and geochemistry of the sediment it's in. “These bacteria can transfer electrons to clean up pollutants, so they could be used to remove harmful substances from sediments,” Li said in a press release. “Also, their design of a highly conductive nickel protein can possibly inspire new bioelectronics.”A Strong Connection With the Land The research team named this vital bacteria after the Yaqona people to honor them and their ancestral land, which includes Yaquina Bay. According to the press release, the descendants of the Yaqona people are part of the Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians. Together, they helped the team come up with the name for this new species of bacteria. “Naming an ecologically important bacterium after a Tribe recognizes its historical bond with the land and acknowledges its enduring contributions to ecological knowledge and sustainability,” Li said in the press release.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Applied and Environmental Microbiology. A novel cable bacteria species with a distinct morphology and genomic potentialA graduate of UW-Whitewater, Monica Cull wrote for several organizations, including one that focused on bees and the natural world, before coming to Discover Magazine. Her current work also appears on her travel blog and Common State Magazine. Her love of science came from watching PBS shows as a kid with her mom and spending too much time binging Doctor Who.

When it comes to navigating areas, young children are a lot smarter than we give them credit for. Although past studies have proposed that our navigational abilities don’t truly kick in until the age of 12, a new study puts these claims to rest, revealing that children as young as 5 can find their way around large spaces. The study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, demonstrated the surprising cognitive capacity of five-year-olds as they navigated a tiny virtual town. Aiming to grasp how the brain develops at a young age, the study also showed how science can be introduced to children in a productive and engaging way.How Does the Brain Aid Navigation?One of the perennial dilemmas of neuroscience is distinguishing what knowledge comes baked into our brains at birth and what knowledge develops over time. Studies have used functional MRI (fMRI) technology to understand the brain on a deeper level, measuring brain activity by following changes in blood flow. The researchers involved with this study previously concentrated on three regions of the adult brain that allow us to familiarize ourselves with the areas we navigate. It starts with the parahippocampal place area (PPA), which lets us recognize places and assign them to different categories. Then, the retrosplenial complex (RSC) maps these places within a larger space. Finally, as we navigate our immediate surroundings, the occipital place area (OPA) keeps us from bumping into obstacles. In 2024, the researchers found that the system associated with the OPA doesn’t fully develop until the age of 8. However, they theorized that younger children must still be able to create a map of their surroundings, even before they can walk well. Exploring a Tiny TownThe new study confirmed that the RSC (responsible for map-based navigation in larger spaces) is already well-developed in children younger than 8. The results come from an immersive experiment that involved five-year-old participants who became acquainted with a virtual location called “Tiny Town.” The researchers stressed the importance of creativity to make experiments fun for children, which is why they gave Tiny Town entertaining landmarks like ice cream stores, playgrounds, and fire stations. The town itself was fashioned as a triangle, with each point marked by a certain landscape: They were dubbed the mountain corner, the tree corner, and the lake corner.  “We want to get at the scientific questions that we’re trying to answer, but it’s also important that a child who participates in a study has a good time," said Yaelan Jung, first author of the study and a postdoctoral fellow at Emory University's Department of Psychology, in a statement. “We want them to leave with a good impression of science.”Understanding Children's BrainsAfter being introduced to Tiny Town, the children were encouraged to explore its streets by using arrow keys on the computer to move. Once they were familiar with the layout, they were tested on the buildings and features they saw, with most children passing the test. From here, the researchers conducted fMRI scans on the children, all while ensuring their comfort. While the scans were happening, the children participated in a game-like task in which they were shown pairs of images from Tiny Town and pressed a button if the images accurately correlated. Data from the scans ultimately proved that the children were able to create a map in their minds, using the RSC in their brains to facilitate navigation in larger spaces. The next step, the researchers say, is to look into the brain development of toddlers, which may require even more clever strategies to keep them engaged in an experiment. “It’s fascinating to explore how humans use different parts of the brain for complex behaviors and how that changes with age and experiences,” Jung said in the press release. “We’re laying the groundwork for clinical applications, including getting a better understanding of typical versus atypical neural development.”Read More: Supporting A Child’s Rapidly Developing BrainArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Early development of navigationally relevant location information in the retrosplenial complexJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.

The full moon of May 2025, aptly known as the Flower Moon, is almost upon us. Representing the pinnacle of springtime, the moon will gleam in the night sky on Monday, May 12, 2025. Although the moon will be at its fullest in the early afternoon or late morning throughout the U.S., it will be most visible when it returns to the sky after sunset. Across various cultures, the Flower Moon is tied closely with the abundance of blooming flowers. Find out the other reasons why this moon is so significant, and how you can catch its appearance.How to Spot the Flower MoonThe Flower Moon’s full phase will peak at 16:56 UTC (12:56 p.m. EST) on May 12, 2025. It will be located southwest in the sky at this time, although it will not be easily viewable with the sun out. Make sure to keep your eyes on the sky later that night, as the full moon will return. Moonwatchers will not have to worry about missing out on the Flower Moon, as it will appear full in the sky the day before (Sunday, May 11, 2025) and after (Tuesday, May 13, 2025) its peak. Each year, the Flower Moon can be spotted near the constellations Libra or Scorpio. This year, the full moon will start in Libra on May 12, 2025, and it will proceed to enter Scorpio territory on the night of May 13, 2025. As it moves into Scorpio, it will share the spotlight with Antares, the glowing red star that is the brightest in Scorpio, giving it the famed title “heart of the scorpion.”Origins of the Flower Moon's NamesThe floral name of May’s Flower Moon comes from the Algonquin and Ojibwe peoples; although Flower Moon is what most people call it nowadays, the moon goes by a few other names in different cultures. Some are similarly plant-themed, from Corn Moon to Budding Moon to Leaf Budding Moon. Other names are a bit more perplexing. The Old English name for this full moon was Milk Moon, as May was considered the month when cows could be milked three times a day. This full moon is also known as the Hare Moon, embodying the folklore connection between rabbits and the moons (for example, some Eastern Asian cultures see the patterns of lunar maria on the moon’s surface as a rabbit).Another Full MicromoonAnother prominent feature of this year’s Flower Moon is that it will be a micromoon, which means it will appear slightly smaller and dimmer than usual (also seen just last month with April’s Pink Moon). This happens when the moon reaches its farthest point from Earth, or its apogee. However, the difference in size is so marginal that it won’t put a damper on anyone’s viewing experience. Those who have been paying close attention to full moons may also notice that the Flower Moon will experience a lower arc than previous months’ full moons, at least in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, the opposite is true: the arc will be higher than previous full moons. After watching May's Flower Moon rise in the sky, you'll have to wait a month to catch the last full moon of spring: June's delectably-named Strawberry Moon, which will appear around Wednesday, June 11, 2025, with summer right around the corner. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:The Planetary Society. Can the Moon be upside down? Jack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.

The Yangtze finless porpoise is both charming and intelligent. It even appears to have a permanent smile on its face. Unfortunately, the porpoise, which is native to China, is critically endangered due to habitat loss. Thanks to over 700 Ancient Chinese poems, experts can now accurately map the decline of the porpoise. The poems date back nearly 2,000 years, spanning multiple dynasties. Since then, the Yangtze finless porpoise, which calls the Yangtze River its home, has lost more than half of its habitat. “We’re connecting 2,000 years of Chinese culture with biodiversity,” said study author Zhigang Mei of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, who grew up alongside the Yangtze River, revering the porpoises, in a press release. “Our work fills the gap between the super long-term information we get from fossils and DNA and the recent population surveys. It really shows how powerful it can be to combine art and biodiversity conservation.”The Smiling Yangtze Finless Porpoise PoemsA Ming Dynasty woodblock-printed illustration from "Sancai Tuhui" (in English, Compendium of the Three Powers), compiled by Wang Qi (1573–1620), which is a 49-volume book of poems on birds and animals. This poem meticulously documents the Yangtze finless porpoise through morphological details, surfacing postures, and maternal care behaviors. (Image Credit "Sancai Tuhui," compiled by Wang Qi (1573–1620))To better understand how the porpoises’ habitat has changed over the years, an interdisciplinary research team analyzed 724 Ancient Chinese poems from across centuries that mention the porpoise. The results, published in Current Biology, indicated that over the last 1,400 years, the porpoise had lost about 65 percent of its habitat, with most of the decline occurring in the last 100 years.The Yangtze River is the longest river in Asia and the third longest in the world. It stretches for 2,236 miles and has historically been a crucial source of travel and commerce. It may have also been a muse for some ancient poets, such as Qianlong, the emperor of the Qing dynasty, according to the release. So it’s highly likely that these poets often witnessed these porpoises. “Compared to fish, Yangtze finless porpoises are pretty big, and they’re active on the surface of the water, especially before thunderstorms when they’re really chasing after fish and jumping around,” said Mei in a press release. “This amazing sight was hard for poets to ignore.”As the team reviewed the poems, the oldest dating back to the year 618, they found that the porpoises were referenced hundreds of times. It was evident that the Ancient Chinese had a deep connection with the finless porpoises, which has carried on to today. According to the press release, Mei learned from his community elders that the porpoises were akin to spirits and that they helped predict the weather and fish levels. Harming them was seen as bad luck. They used to live in almost every part of the Yangtze. Sharpest Habitat DeclineOne of the challenges the team faced was deciphering the ancient poet’s writing style. While some focused on realism, others were more metaphorical. The team had to analyze each poet's body of work to fully understand their style, for the sake of the study’s accuracy. From there, the team compared the more accurate porpoise references with the assumed geographical sightings to create a chronological order. According to the study, the Qing Dynasty (1636 C.E. to 1912 C.E.) had 477 poems that mentioned the finless porpoise, the Ming Dynasty (1368 C.E. to 1644 C.E.) had 177 poems, the Yuan Dynasty (1271 C.E. to 1368 C.E.) had 27, the Song Dynasty (960 to 1279) had 38, and the Tang Dynasty (618 C.E. to 907 C.E.) had the remaining five poems.From here, the team determined that the sharpest porpoise habitat decline occurred during the last century, between the Qing Dynasty and today. Since the Tang Dynasty, the finless porpoises’ range decreased by 33 percent, while their range into the lakes and tributaries around the Yangtze decreased by 91 percent. Human Activity and NatureThis correlates with other data suggesting that the porpoise, along with other animals that call the Yangtze home, have declined likely due to human activity that altered the river. “Protecting nature isn’t just the responsibility of modern science; it’s also deeply connected to our culture and history,” said Mei in a press release. “Art, like poetry, can really spark an emotional connection, making people realize the harmony and respect we should have between people and nature.”The team is continuing to look into the past to better understand how they can help the Yangtze finless porpoise in the future. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Natural History Museum. Critically Endangered Yangtze finless porpoise shows signs of recoveryA graduate of UW-Whitewater, Monica Cull wrote for several organizations, including one that focused on bees and the natural world, before coming to Discover Magazine. Her current work also appears on her travel blog and Common State Magazine. Her love of science came from watching PBS shows as a kid with her mom and spending too much time binging Doctor Who.

Between 1637 and 1697, thousands of bodies were buried beneath a historic hospital in Milan. Designed to accommodate the dead as they decomposed, the crypt of the Ospedale Maggiore was used until the limited space and foul smells forced the hospital to find another place to deposit its dead. But the bodies beneath the Ospedale Maggiore, more commonly called the Ca’ Granda hospital, haven’t been forgotten, however. Since 2010, a team of researchers from the University of Milan and the Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico has worked to recover and study the contents of the hospital’s old crypt, all in an attempt to uncover more about the people and medicine of 17th-century Milan.“The study of their remains aims to give back a general identity and a story to each of these persons,” the team wrote in a 2022 study, “and [to] examine [the practices] and therapy of this exceptional hospital.”The Creation of the Ca’ Granda CryptWhen Ca’ Granda was founded in 1456, its mission was simple: to provide assistance to the sick and the injured in the city of Milan, and particularly to those of the poorer classes. For centuries, the historic hospital fulfilled that mission, aiding patients with any manner of ailment. In fact, the hospital long served as a model for medicine in Europe, earning a reputation for its innovative treatments and therapies.In the 1600s, a crypt was built beneath a church on the hospital grounds, which would ultimately be crowded with thousands of corpses. Comprising 14 chambers, all around 7 feet tall, the crypt covers a total surface area of over 3,900 square feet. How Were the Dead Deposited?Initially, the crypt was meant to contain the corpses as they decomposed into skeletons, at which point they would be carried to another cemetery area at the hospital. But the cool conditions of the chambers and the difficulty of moving their contents meant that the bodies stuck around instead of decaying, making it necessary to close the crypt in the 1690s. Today, researchers suspect that there are around two million bones inside the crypt, intermingled with ceramics, coins, and clothing. While the lower layers of the chambers contain articulated skeletons from single individuals, the upper layers contain a muddle of bones from many patients — a result of the continued use of the crypt between 1637 and 1697 and of the many attempts by the hospital to accommodate more and more corpses.What Do the Dead Tell Us?Since 2010, researchers have analyzed over 300,000 bones from the crypt’s chambers. Their assessments have shown that the bones belonged to male and female patients, both young and old, many of whom showed signs of damage on their skulls and teeth. Indicative of periods of stress, sickness, and malnutrition, these signs suggest that the majority of corpses buried at Ca’ Granda came from the poorer classes of Milan, confirming that the hospital’s treatments were truly available to all. The injuries represented in the crypt are diverse, as are the diseases, which include dental conditions, joint conditions, and syphilis. Unsurprisingly, signs of surgery and autopsy are seen among the bones and are interspersed with traces of other treatments, too. Indeed, chemical studies of the chamber’s contents from 2015 and 2021 suggest, for instance, that the hospital may have treated its patients with heavy metals like lead and mercury. Meanwhile, an analysis from 2023 found traces of cannabis consumption in some of the crypt’s corpses, while a similar study from a 2024 article supports their consumption of coca, a psychoactive plant that is today processed into cocaine. In their 2022 Medical History study, the researchers stress that these chemical traces can be compared to the hospital’s written sources to recreate the range of treatments that were available to Milan’s poorer classes. “The examination of these skeletons,” the researchers state in the study, “provides a glimpse not only of this specific hospital but also of an ancient era.”Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Journal of Archaeological Science. Forensic Toxicological Analyses Reveal the Use of Cannabis in Milano (Italy) in the 1600'sJournal of Archaeological Science. Forensic Toxicology Backdates the Use of Coca Plant (Erythroxylum spp.) in Europe to the Early 1600sSam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.

Fungi can be wonderful. Penicillium molds produce the antibiotic penicillin, which has saved untold lives by warding off bacterial infection. Psychedelic mushrooms alter the mind in profound and psychologically beneficial ways.But fungi have a dark side, too. Many parasitize and zombify other creatures, hijacking their bodies for gruesome, self-interested purposes — fortunately, humans have not yet made the list. Others, in stark contrast to penicillium, can cause severe infections. Here’s a selection of the weirdest, grisliest, and most concerning fungi.1. Cordyceps FungiAn ant infected with Cordyceps. (Image Credit: Jojo dexter/Shutterstock) Perhaps the best-known of the scary fungi, cordyceps recently got a big boost in publicity from The Last of Us, a post-apocalyptic video game turned HBO series. The premise is that a fungal epidemic upends the world, turning the infected into zombies with mushrooms for faces.It’s a terrifying idea, made even more terrifying by its basis in reality: What the show portrays cordyceps doing to people, they actually do to ants. Once cordyceps fungi infect a host, they manipulate its behavior for the sake of their own survival and reproduction. Controlling the ant’s every movement, the fungus forces it to climb to a high place, clench down on a leaf, and hang there until it dies.It gets worse. A few days after the ant dies, the cordyceps-driven mission finally becomes clear: Long, stalk-like fruiting bodies begin to sprout from the poor creature’s body. Soon, from this convenient perch, they release spores far and wide, spawning a new generation of ghastly parasites. There are about 750 known species of cordyceps worldwide. They live in almost every region, including North America, but are most abundant in humid temperate and tropical parts of Asia.Luckily, cordyceps don’t infect humans, so we have nothing to fear from them (except nightmares). And although some “zoonotic” diseases have evolved to spread between animals and humans, experts say it’s unlikely cordyceps will make that leap. In fact, they can even help us: one species of cordyceps has been used as a traditional medicine in China for thousands of years, and others are used to control insect pests.Read More: How a Zombie-Ant Fungus Can Infect a Host2. Spider Zombie Fungus (Gibellula attenboroughii)(Credit: CABI). The new fungus Gibellula attenboroughii on the orb-weaving cave spider As it turns out, ants aren’t the only ones vulnerable to zombification — there’s another family of zombie fungi that targets spiders. Biologists have known about these fungi for decades, but a new species was discovered in Ireland in 2021, during filming for the BBC Winterwatch TV series. It was named Gibellula attenboroughii after Sir David Attenborough, the renowned British naturalist.Like cordyceps, Gibellula somehow manipulates its victims, causing them to “exhibit behavioural changes similar to those reported for zombie ants,” according to the authors of a recent paper announcing the new species. The fungus lures the spider out of its web to a place that’s better suited for spore dispersal (the BBC found their specimen on the ceiling of an abandoned gunpowder store). Once the spider dies in that exposed position, stalks shoot forth from its body, and the process begins anew.3. Cicada Zombie Fungus (Massospora cicadina)(Credit: Gerry Bishop/Shutterstock) We’re not quite done with zombies. Massospora cicadina targets male periodical cicadas — which emerge from underground for a short breeding season every 13 or 17 years — and it has the most ingenious strategem of all.Under fungal influence, infected hosts flick their wings in precisely the same way as sexually receptive female cicadas. The display attracts other males from far and wide. But unbeknownst to these would-be suitors, the host’s lower abdomen has been eaten away by the fungus and, rather horrifically, replaced by a plug of spores. As the cicadas attempt to mate, they become infected by the spores themselves.4. Candida aurisMicrobiological culture of the yeast Candida auris. (Credit: TopMicrobialStock/Shutterstock)When the World Health Organization released its first list of threatening fungal pathogens in 2022, Candida auris was one of just four in the “critical” category. In recent years, this multi-drug-resistant fungus has spread alarmingly throughout healthcare facilities.A kind of yeast first reported in the U.S. in 2016, C. auris can cause life-threatening infections that are difficult (if not impossible) to treat. Clinical cases have risen year after year; in 2023, the number reached more than 4,500 nationwide. C. auris remains almost nonexistent in some regions, but California, Illinois, Florida, New York, Texas, and Nevada have all been hit hard. And it’s still winding its way across the rest of the country — just last recently, health officials in Montana confirmed their first case.Symptoms depend on where the infection takes root, from the skin to the bloodstream. They can resemble a bacterial infection, with fever and chills, but there’s no common set of symptoms, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Otherwise, healthy people typically don’t get sick.Though C. auris can spread through the air — usually only short distances — it’s primarily spread by direct contact. The fungus colonizes surfaces, like tables, doorknobs, bedrails, and even human skin, and can survive on these objects for a long time.5. Aspergillus Fumigatus(Image Credit: M-Production/Shutterstock)Besides C. auris on that list of fungal threats, also in the critical category, is Aspergillus fumigatus. For years, it too has been developing resistance to antimicrobial drugs, possibly as a result of agricultural fungicide use (though some studies dispute that idea).A. fumigatus is a common mold normally found in soil, where it grows on decaying vegetation. It doesn’t infect most people, but can cause a life-threatening illness, called invasive aspergillosis, in those with lung disease or weakened immune systems. Symptoms range from fever and chest pain to shortness of breath and coughing up blood.Some people who aren’t immunocompromised might still have an allergic reaction to A. fumigatus, with symptoms like wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath. Though not as severe as aspergillosis, these reactions can cause damage to the airway and lungs, especially in people with asthma. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:The Conversation. Could fungi actually cause a zombie apocalypse? CDC. Tracking C. aurisCDC. About C. aurisCody Cottier is a contributing writer at Discover who loves exploring big questions about the universe and our home planet, the nature of consciousness, the ethical implications of science and more. He holds a bachelor's degree in journalism and media production from Washington State University.

In January 1922, Leonard Thompson was a teenager dying of diabetes in a Toronto hospital. There was no cure for diabetes, and most adolescents succumbed to the disease within a year of diagnosis.Thompson had endured diabetes for almost three years. The best physicians could advise was a near-starvation diet that reduced Thompson to only 65 pounds. His medical team agreed he was doomed. But then, Thompson received two injections of an experimental intervention— insulin. Within a day, his blood glucose levels stabilized. A lifesaving drug was born.Soon, insulin was in mass production, and millions of lives were saved. The scientists credited with the discovery won a Nobel Prize. The victory, however, led to a lifelong animosity between the winners.When was Insulin Discovered?In 1922, physician Frederick Banting was teaching at the University of Toronto. He wanted to further test “pancreatic substances” as a way to treat diabetes. About 30 years earlier, scientists had discovered that insulin is produced in the pancreas and that people with diabetes lack the ability to make their own insulin.Banting approached a scientist at the university, John Macleod, with his research interest. Macleod supported Banting and allowed him to work with one of his top students, Charles Best, and use his laboratory.Together, Banting and Best began experimenting on dogs in May 1921. The dogs had their pancreases removed and were given a pancreatic extract injection, which proved to lower their blood glucose levels. By late 1921, J.B. Collip joined the research team and focused on purifying the insulin for human injection.After Thompson received his life-saving injection, Macleod stepped in to help usher the drug to the mass market. Working with his contacts, he secured licensing and patents. He connected with the pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly to take the drug from being “thick brown sludge” that was tested on dogs to a regulated pharmaceutical found in every hospital’s medicine locker.“And while none of these tasks might have the glitz and glamour of life-saving research, but without them, insulin would have got no further than the lab bench,” says Kersten T. Hall, the author of Insulin: The Crooked Timber and a visiting fellow at the University of Leeds in England.How Has Insulin Saved Lives?The response was rapid. Eli Lilly began mass-producing insulin derived from cows and pigs. The formula saved millions of lives, but it had limits. Patients processed it quickly and required multiple daily injections to safely lower their blood sugar. There were supply issues as well as noted allergic reactions to the animal byproduct.Novo Nordisk began producing a slower-acting insulin in 1936, which helped with supply issues because patients required less. The next big breakthrough came in the 1980s, when Eli Lilly introduced biosynthetic human insulin. Insulin from cows and pigs was no longer needed because a genetically engineered version was derived from E. coli bacteria.Insulin saved diabetics’ lives. Currently, two million Americans have Type I diabetes, a number that includes 304,000 kids and adolescents. More than a century ago, diabetic children faced certain death,  and about 66 percent died within 1.4 years of their diagnosis. Advocates credit the scientists who discovered the life-saving drug and got it to market.Problematically, the scientists disagreed as to who deserved the credit.   Insulin Discovery DisputeThe 1923 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was given to both Banting and Macleod. Although Banting made the discovery, the committee believed insulin would not have made it to market without Macleod. Banting was not happy.“He was furious; utterly livid,” Hall says. “Any sense of pride and achievement at having received the highest accolade in science was completely eclipsed by his sense of outrage at having to share the prize with Macleod.”Banting felt he should have shared the prize with Best and that Macleod should have been excluded. Macleod felt that Collip, although a latecomer to the team, made essential contributions. Banting split his prize money with Best, and Macleod did the same with Collip.The two prize winners parted ways. Macleod returned to his native Scotland in 1928 and died in his late 50s in 1935. Banting died in 1941 from injuries sustained in a plane accident.Although the scientists’ feud was legendary, Hall says it’s important not to allow it to obscure how the scientific process leads to discovery.“This is what, as historians of science, we’re here to do,” Hall says. “Not to undermine science, but quite the opposite – by exposing the flaws and oversimplifications of the popular legendary accounts, we reveal the practice of science to be much more complex – and so much richer and more interesting for it.”This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Kersten T. Hall. Insulin: The Crooked Timber : a History from Thick Brown Muck to Wall StreetJournal of Community Hospital Internal Medicine Perspectives. History of insulin American Diabetes Association. Statistics About DiabetesEmilie Lucchesi has written for some of the country's largest newspapers, including The New York Times, Chicago Tribune and Los Angeles Times. She holds a bachelor's degree in journalism from the University of Missouri and an MA from DePaul University. She also holds a Ph.D. in communication from the University of Illinois-Chicago with an emphasis on media framing, message construction and stigma communication. Emilie has authored three nonfiction books. Her third, A Light in the Dark: Surviving More Than Ted Bundy, releases October 3, 2023, from Chicago Review Press and is co-authored with survivor Kathy Kleiner Rubin.

3D models of the skull of typical species before (top) and after (bottom) the Cenomanian-Turonian transition: the fast ichthyosaur Sveltonectes insolitus (top) and the large mosasaurid Mosasaurus hoffmanni. (Image Credit: Valentin Fischer, Francesco Della Giustina) NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsA literal sea change disrupted the balance of aquatic predators during the middle Cretaceous. Before that period, during the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, fierce aquatic reptilian predators prowled the oceans, including pliosaurids with jaws over six feet long, toothy thalattosuchia crocodyliforms, and fast, fish-like ichthyosaurians.Then, during the middle Cretaceous, something happened. Ichthyosaurs, thalattosuchians, and pliosaurids disappeared rather abruptly. But the change wasn’t a uniform mass extinction event. Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, and sharks diversified and expanded.So what caused this abrupt, unequal shift? The highest spike in temperatures within the last 541 million years likely altered the oceans’ chemistry, according to a study that will soon be presented at the General Assembly of the European Geosciences Union. Oxygen levels dropped, while carbon dioxide increased. The rapid heat change also disrupted the levels of nutrients like sulfur and iron within the oceans.Top Ocean PredatorsThis transition shifted the composition of top predators in the ocean, essentially changing the oceanic food webs of the Late Cretaceous, according to Valentin Fischer of the Université de Liège in Belgium and his colleagues. Those changes did not affect all species equally, and were relatively short-lived.“Changes in temperatures, sea levels, forcing modifications in trophic chains and which favors some groups and will be detrimental to some others,” says Fischer. “These events are not a mass extinction event but what we call a strong biotic turnover.”Fischer and his colleagues combed through two massive data sets to reach their conclusions. First, they pooled and analyzed data on the phylogenetic relationships of hundreds of marine reptile lineages. They aimed to determine how distinctions were distributed throughout the tree of life. Then, they analyzed the largest-ever-assembled collection of 2D and 3D images of marine reptiles to compare the predatory capabilities of those creatures over time.Evolutionary ImpactsTheir analysis showed that the rapid shift in conditions — called the Cenomanian-Turonian transition — disproportionately affected some of the larger, faster predators higher on the food chain. Those changes triggered some relatively quick evolutionary impacts, such as fairly drastic differences in some aquatic reptiles’ skull shapes and sizes.“I was surprised that the effects of the turnover were so strong and so clear,” says Fischer.As a young scientist in training, Fischer started with the extinction of ichthyosaurs. Then he examined the disappearance of other aquatic lizards that had evolved along with them. As his research methods expanded, he began to cast wider and wider nets — which took him to the Cenomanian-Turonian transition. That work left him with a clear conclusion about this past extinction event — and may pose as a warning to the future.“Ancient climate change forced a clear shift in marine top predators,” Fischer says.Read More: Why Were Prehistoric Marine Reptiles So Huge?Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:General Assembly of the European Geosciences Union. How mid-Cretaceous events affected marine top predatorsBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

If you’ve ever had a cold sore, the viral infection that caused it may lead to a higher risk of developing Alzheimer's disease down the line. A growing body of evidence suggests that herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) — a common virus that often results in cold sores — is linked to Alzheimer’s.Several studies have found a correlation between HSV-1 infection and tau proteins, which play a major role in Alzheimer's progression. Find out what can happen inside your aging brain after catching this viral infection, and what scientists are saying about possible therapeutic treatments. Alzheimer’s: A Growing ProblemAlzheimer’s disease, a form of dementia associated with severe memory loss and other cognitive impairments, will become even more prevalent over the next few decades. In the U.S. alone, the number of people suffering from the condition will nearly double by 2050, with cases expected to jump from 7 million to 13 million. Given the impending swell in Alzheimer’s diagnoses, scientists have resolved to gain a better understanding of the emergence and evolution of the disease. Scientists have closely followed the influence of herpes viruses for answers. The most common variations of the herpes virus are HSV-1 (causing oral herpes) and HSV-2 (causing genital herpes, usually transmitted through sexual contact). Most people will contract HSV-1 at some point during their lives — data has shown that HSV-1 affects 57 to 80 percent of adults in the U.S. And although it’s typically harmless, remnants of the infection linger in the body for life and can sometimes resurface.The lasting presence of HSV-1 in the body could be a major factor in Alzheimer's development. A January 2025 study published in the journal Cell Reports seemingly confirmed this idea, finding proteins related to HSV-1 in Alzheimer’s brain samples. The researchers determined that the viral proteins increase as the disease worsens. The Link Between Tau and HSV-1The researchers of this study also uncovered an interesting relationship between HSV-1 infection and tau proteins. Tau proteins, although associated with Alzheimer’s, aren’t destructive right from the outset. They help stabilize an integral portion of neurons called the axon. However, they can undergo hyperphosphorylation, in which their phosphate count grows significantly. This strips the proteins of their original, beneficial function and causes them to aggregate into neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), contributing to neurodegeneration seen in Alzheimer's. According to researchers of the 2025 study, HSV-1 infection can modulate levels of tau protein in the brain and regulate their function. They say the brain’s immune response promotes modified tau proteins that reduce the amount of postinfection neuron death. This indicates that tau initially protects the brain against infection. However, this process ultimately induces brain deterioration in the long term through heightened tau aggregation. The study states that repeated HSV-1 reactivation can trigger chronic tau hyperphosphorylation, leading to tau toxicity and, thus, neurodegeneration. Turning Tau into Alzheimer’s TreatmentThe researchers believe this link between HSV-1 and tau could actually inspire new treatment methods for Alzheimer's. They will continue working to find a way to replicate the protective power of tau phosphorylation without triggering the aggregation responsible for Alzheimer’s.The role of viral infections in Alzheimer's has yet to be fully understood. One factor that requires further research is how viruses might affect another culprit of Alzheimer’s, the accumulation of amyloid-beta proteins that form plaque in grey matter (a tissue making up the brain’s outer layer). Scientists have their eyes on viruses other than HSV-1 as well, such as varicella-zoster virus (which causes chickenpox and shingles). Some studies suggest that this virus may raise dementia risk, and others suggest that shingles vaccination may lower dementia risk. Alzheimer's currently has no cure, but scientists are focused on finding improved therapies for the disease. The most vital answers may still lie in HSV-1 infection and other viruses that are an inevitable aspect of many people's lives.This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Michigan State University. Tau: A good protein gone badHarvard Health Publishing. Are some cases of Alzheimer's disease caused by infection?Stanford Medicine. Study strengthens link between shingles vaccine and lower dementia riskJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.

Medications in the capsules are separated by pH-responsive polymer barriers (white) that can be tuned to release each drug or dose at different times. This photo showcases capsules without medications (left) and those packed with medications (right). (Image Courtesy Of David Baillot/UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering) NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsStumbling upon your grandmother’s colorful pillbox organizers or custom-made blister packs might leave you impressed — how does she keep track of all those differently shaped and colored pills, each taken at different times of the day? What seems like a simple routine is often a logistical challenge, and for many, keeping up with a strict medication schedule is easier said than done.A team of engineers at the University of California - San Diego may have found a solution. They’ve developed a single smart capsule that holds multiple medications and releases them at precisely timed intervals — making daily pill routines simpler and potentially more effective.The Perfect CapsulePublished in Matter, the study outlines how the capsule uses a combination of clever materials and engineering to deliver medication in timed phases. Inside, different drugs are housed in separate compartments. Each is sealed off by a dissolvable barrier made from lactose, maltose, and a pH-sensitive polymer that shields it from stomach acid and dissolves only in a more alkaline environment.“We want to simplify medication management with a single capsule that is smart enough to deliver the right drug at the right dose at the right time,” said first author Amal Abbas, a recent Ph.D. graduate in chemical engineering at the UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering, in a news statement.The capsule’s shell, made from vegetable cellulose, includes a cap that dissolves immediately upon reaching the stomach. This releases the first drug. The rest of the capsule remains intact, with the polymer-controlled barriers dissolving over time to release the next doses.The researchers also added microscopic magnesium particles that act as tiny stirrers. When they react with stomach acid, they generate hydrogen bubbles that gently mix the capsule’s contents, helping drugs dissolve faster. This is particularly useful for medications requiring quick absorption, like pain relievers or emergency treatments. These particles also help neutralize stomach acid, temporarily creating an alkaline zone to trigger the next drug release.Improving Patient ComplianceManaging multiple medications — especially with different timing requirements — is a major challenge for patients. This capsule is designed to address that problem.“This innovative daily capsule approach ensures day-long full compliance towards improved patient outcomes,” said senior author Joseph Wang, professor at UCSD in the statement.To demonstrate its potential, the team tested the capsule using levodopa, a Parkinson’s medication that must be taken consistently to maintain motor control. In lab simulations of the stomach environment, the capsule released doses at staggered intervals.“This timed release of multiple doses could really help patients with Parkinson’s disease,” said Abbas in the statement. “If the drug level dips too low, patients will experience tremors and other motor symptoms. But if we can keep that level steady, we can also help keep a patient’s movement stable. Our capsule has the potential to ensure this stability throughout the day, so patients don’t have to worry about timing every dose perfectly.”Versatility and What’s NextThe capsule could also be customized for combination therapies. For example, someone with heart disease could take a single capsule that releases aspirin in the morning, beta blockers in the afternoon, and cholesterol medication at night.To bring the capsule closer to real-world use, Abbas is launching a startup focused on its development and commercialization. Her team’s experience with microrobots — tiny particles previously used in live animal studies to deliver treatments — helped inform this design. Those efforts laid the groundwork for using similar technology here.The materials in the capsule are already FDA-approved, “[which] will help ensure an easy translation to market,” Abbas noted in the statement.The team’s upcoming plans involve testing the capsule in living organisms, refining the manufacturing process, and adapting the design to support multi-day drug release. They’re also investigating ways to deliver medication to precise areas of the gut for targeted treatment.For patients juggling complex regimens, this single daily capsule could be a much-needed breakthrough.This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Having worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts – ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition – into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When she’s not immersed in a popular science book, you’ll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

Have you ever hesitated to treat yourself to a tuna steak or a colorful sushi plate because of concerns about mercury and other heavy metals? You’re not alone — and your caution is justified. Considered one of the top ten chemicals of public health concern by the World Health Organization, mercury can cause serious medical issues, distinctly for developing fetuses during pregnancy.While eating fish regularly is encouraged for its nutritional benefits — especially during pregnancy — global industrial processes have dramatically increased heavy metal levels in our oceans. That means more mercury in the fish that end up on our plates.Scientists from UCLA and UC San Diego’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography may have come up with a clever solution. They’ve genetically modified a common human gut bacterium to help detoxify mercury before it can harm us. Their study, published in Cell Host & Microbe, lays the groundwork for a practical probiotic we could take just before digging into a seafood feast.Danger of Heavy Metals in FoodBut what exactly makes mercury and other heavy metals so dangerous? These substances disrupt essential cellular functions, stunt cell growth, and can lead to organ damage — particularly in the brain, liver, and kidneys. Mercury exposure is especially harmful during pregnancy, where it can interfere with fetal development.Even low-level exposure can result in heavy metals slowly building up in the body over time. Seafood is the main dietary source of mercury, thanks to pollution from mining and other industrial activities. Once in the ocean, mercury is converted into methylmercury — a far more toxic form that accumulates in large predatory fish like tuna, swordfish, and even salmon, through a process called biomagnification.“Despite global efforts to reduce mercury emissions and its accumulation in fish, methylmercury levels in seafood are not expected to decline anytime soon. Fish remains a major and culturally important part of the diet for many people around the world, and we hope it continues to be,” said Amina Schartup, co-author and Scripps associate professor of marine biogeochemistry, in a statement.Upgrading Our Gut MicrobesTo tackle the mercury issue, the researchers took inspiration from mercury-resistant soil bacteria. These microbes produce an enzyme that helps them detoxify mercury. The team inserted this enzyme into Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, a common member of the human gut microbiome. After confirming the modified bacterium could remove methylmercury, they moved on to testing it in mice.The results were encouraging: mice with the engineered gut microbe were protected from both acute and gradual mercury exposure after a diet heavy in bluefin tuna.And what about pregnancy — the most sensitive time for mercury exposure? In a similar experiment with pregnant mice, the probiotic once again proved effective. “The gut bacteria helped to eliminate [mercury] from the body before it could enter the maternal bloodstream and access the developing offspring,” reported first author and UCLA research scientist Kristie Yu in a press release.Probiotics Fighting MercuryThe researchers also tested their approach with salmon, which, while generally lower in mercury than other species, still poses a risk. The treatment with the modified microbe continued to show promise.Finally, they tried a more convenient delivery method: an oral probiotic supplement. Mice fed a diet of bluefin tuna and given the engineered microbe in the form of an oral probiotic had significantly lower levels of methylmercury in their tissues.Elaine Hsiao, co-author of the study and a UCLA professor, envisions “the possibility that people could take a probiotic to offset the risk of consuming too much methylmercury, especially when pregnant.”This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:World Health Organization. MercuryHaving worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts – ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition – into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When she’s not immersed in a popular science book, you’ll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.

The mummy of the 'air-dried chaplain' in his coffin in the church crypt of St. Thomas am Blasenstein, Austria. (Image Credit: Andreas Nerlich)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsWe typically associate mummies with ancient Egypt — or sometimes cheesy old horror movies. Now a newly described mummy from an unexpected place — Austria — details in the journal Frontiers in Medicine a previously unknown embalming technique.Although mummification is firmly linked to the Age of the Pharaohs, other cultures have employed various embalming techniques resembling that process. It is often used for religious reasons and the methods vary by time and place.Unusual Embalming TechniqueThe well-preserved Austrian mummy is the corpse of a local parish vicar, Franz Xaver Sidler von Rosenegg, who died in 1746. It was found in the church crypt of St Thomas am Blasenstein. The embalming technique was notable not just for its efficacy and ingredients, but for what can only be described (to put it delicately) as a rear-entry approach.“Our investigation uncovered that the excellent preservation status came from an unusual type of embalming, achieved by stuffing the abdomen through the rectal canal with wood chips, twigs and fabric, and the addition of zinc chloride for internal drying,” Andreas Nerlich, a pathologist at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität and an author of the paper, said in a press release.Most embalming techniques involve opening the body to insert preservative materials. However, the rectal route may be more common than scientists have realized.“This type of preservation may have been much more widespread but unrecognized in cases where ongoing postmortal decay processes may have damaged the body wall so that the manipulations would not have been realized as they were,” Nerlich said.Preserving the MummyThe mixture of materials found packed in the mummy’s abdominal and pelvic cavity absorbed much of the body’s moisture. Zinc chloride, which the researchers detected in a toxicological analysis, exhibits a powerful drying effect. The combination of the materials and that chemical helped preserve the mummy.Although, the mummy was long rumored to be the vicar, the identity wasn’t confirmed until the recent analysis. The scientists used multiple methods, including radiocarbon dating, CT scans, and stable isotope analysis, to reach their conclusion.Insight into the Vicar's LifeThe investigation also provided insight into Sidler’s life. He appeared to have lived on central European grains, animal products, and possibly freshwater fish. Near the end of his life, he may have missed meals — perhaps due to the War of Austrian Succession. The skeleton showed no major signs of stress, which fits with the lifestyle of a priest who would have performed little to no physical work. He appeared to have been a smoker and suffered from tuberculosis near the end of his life.Despite those details, a few mysteries remain. The researchers discovered a small glass sphere with holes on both ends inside the body. They are unsure if it was placed there deliberately or accidentally included during the body’s preparation for burial.They also don’t know why he was buried in the church crypt, rather than near his home.“Possibly, the vicar was planned for transportation to his home abbey, which might have failed for unknown reasons,” Nerlich said in the release.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

Do nonhuman animals live in a kind of eternal present, or are they aware of the passage of time? That question has been debated by scientists for decades. Most experts agree that animals have some way of measuring time, but how their brains process time has long been a mystery. We may never know what the passage of time feels like to other animals, but researchers are beginning to discover what’s going on in the brain when animals process time.How Animals Process TimeDaniel Dombeck, a neuroscientist at Northwestern University, has done a lot of work on what happens in the brain as it forms, stores, and recalls memories. As you might imagine, this kind of work often involves mice and mazes. However, in Dombeck’s lab, they let the mice play video games — that is, they use a virtual reality maze. This turned out to be a brilliant way of designing an experiment to study how animals process time.The researchers knew that spatial navigation and episodic memories are encoded in the temporal lobe, specifically in the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC). Episodic memory is the memory of specific events: what you did last Tuesday, what you had for breakfast, what you were doing the last time you saw your keys. So they thought that perhaps that area of the brain could also be involved in encoding time. To test the idea, they trained mice to run on a treadmill in a virtual reality environment. About halfway down the track, the mice came to a closed door. After six seconds, the door opened; a click signaled the start of the countdown. The mice continued through the door to get their reward. If the mice tried to run before the six seconds had expired, it was game over. No reward.Encoding Time in the BrainThen the scientists changed the game. They made the door invisible. The mice could still tell where the door was, because the floor of the track changed. But the mice could not tell, by vision, hearing, smell, or any other cue, if the door was open. The only way they could tell when the door opened was by knowing that those six seconds had elapsed. And for that, they needed to rely on an internal sense of time.Meanwhile, the researchers monitored activity in the animals’ brains. They found a group of neurons that appeared to encode time. While the mice were running along the track, brain cells that control spatial encoding were firing. When the mice stopped at the invisible door, those cells stopped firing, and a set of cells the researchers called ‘timing cells’ turned on. These cells encoded how long the animal rested in front of the door. “People knew that animals had an estimate of time, but it wasn't known where that representation of time came from in the brain,” says Dombeck. “Our work was one of the first to pinpoint this specific part of the brain, the medial temporal lobe, as a place where the time cells might actually sit, and where the sense of time might arise.”Dombeck adds that the idea of exactly where in the brain time is processed is still controversial. Time representations have been found in the striatum and the lateral cortex as well. However, in a follow-up study, Dombeck and colleagues silenced the MEC while the mice were learning the task. And sure enough, the mice couldn’t perform the invisible door task.Still, there is much work to be done to understand how the brain processes time. “Figuring out how all of these different timing circuits interact with each other and how the brain chooses which one to pay attention to at any given moment is where a lot of the work is going in the future,” Dombeck says.Time Moves Slow and FastDombeck also points out that other animals don’t experience time the way we do.“They don’t have clocks; they’re not counting seconds,” he says. “It’s not clear what time means to them.” And, of course, they can’t tell us.However, one thing we do know is that time doesn’t pass the same way for all animals. According to research by Kevin Healy and others, small animals with faster metabolisms, birds, for example, process more information in a given amount of time — visually, they process more frames per second — than do larger animals. That’s why it’s so difficult for a human to catch a fly. The fly has more opportunity to see what you’re doing than you have to see what it’s doing.This difference in processing speed means these animals experience time more slowly. On the other hand, large animals with slower metabolisms, such as giant turtles, experience time faster.In more recent work, Healy has shown that dragonflies can process 300 changes per second. Humans can manage only about 65 changes per second. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Science Direct. Critical Flicker FusionBritish Ecological Society. Research reveals which animals perceive time the fastestAvery Hurt is a freelance science journalist. In addition to writing for Discover, she writes regularly for a variety of outlets, both print and online, including National Geographic, Science News Explores, Medscape, and WebMD. She’s the author of Bullet With Your Name on It: What You Will Probably Die From and What You Can Do About It, Clerisy Press 2007, as well as several books for young readers. Avery got her start in journalism while attending university, writing for the school newspaper and editing the student non-fiction magazine. Though she writes about all areas of science, she is particularly interested in neuroscience, the science of consciousness, and AI–interests she developed while earning a degree in philosophy.

In an ejection that would have caused its rotation to slow, a magnetar is depicted losing material into space in this artist’s concept. The magnetar’s strong, twisted magnetic field lines (shown in green) can influence the flow of electrically charged material from the object, which is a type of neutron star. (Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsFor some technological speculators, the universe could be considered a gold mine. But in terms of literally yielding precious metals, a more accurate description might be a factory — albeit one that operates intermittently and under both rare and extreme circumstances.Astronomers now have a much better understanding of the cosmic conditions that create gold, platinum, and other heavy elements. They’ve identified and characterized a giant flare from a supermagnetized star that may have generated as much as 10 percent of our galaxy’s heavy elements, they report in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.Star in Magnetic FieldsThe genesis of the discovery dates to a previous event. In 2004, a space telescope captured a magnetar — a type of star wrapped in magnetic fields trillions of times as strong as Earth’s — emitting a giant flare. Although that blast of light and radioactive particles only lasted a few seconds, it released more energy than our sun does in a million years.Astronomers identified that first flash of light. But a smaller one that peaked about 10 minutes later remained unexplained.That second one has now been identified as the birth of heavy elements, including gold and platinum. In addition to pinpointing the cause of the second flare, the astronomers also calculated how much heavy metal the first one produced: the equivalent of a third of Earth’s mass. There has only been one other observation of such creation, but from a different source — neutron star mergers.“This is really just the second time we've ever directly seen proof of where these elements form,” Brian Metzger, a scientist at the Flatiron Institute’s Center for Computational Astrophysics (CCA) in New York City and an author of the paper, said in a press release. “It’s a substantial leap in our understanding of heavy elements production.”Heavy Metal CreationIn the early days of the Universe relatively few elements were formed in the Big Bang. After that event, there was plenty of hydrogen and helium, as well as a dash of lithium. But most of the elements on the Periodic Table did not yet exist. Other elements gradually came into being as stars were born and died over time. But those explanations only held for the lighter elements.While scientists thoroughly understand where and how the lighter elements are made, the production locations of many of the heaviest neutron-rich elements — those heavier than iron — remain incomplete.Scientists theorized that heavy metals were produced in a set of rapid nuclear reactions. Astronomers confirmed the process in 2017 when they watched two neutron stars collide. That collision created the conditions for heavy metal creation.However, since such collisions are so rare, they couldn’t account for all the heavy metals in existence. Some suspected that magnetars could also be a source, since they also contain an abundant and dense amount of neutrons. Metzger and colleagues calculated in 2024 that giant flares could also produce heavy metals. They have now confirmed it.The Search Is OnSince magnetar flares are more common than neutron star collisions, the scientists expect to find more, now that they know where to look and what to look for. They will soon have a better tool to search for them when NASA’s Compton Spectrometer and Imager mission, launches in 2027.Finding them will still be a challenge, though. Large magnetar flares happen every few decades in the Milky Way and about once a year across the visible universe. And astronomers will only have about 10 to 15 minutes to point a telescope at the burst once the initial signal is detected.“It’ll be a fun chase,” said in the release Metzger.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:The Astrophysical Journal Letters. Direct Evidence for r-process Nucleosynthesis in Delayed MeV Emission from the SGR 1806–20 Magnetar Giant FlareNature. A giant γ-ray flare from the magnetar SGR 1806–20Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

That scratch on your arm, that scrape on your knee — they’re taking their sweet time to heal, and it’s likely the fault of your fur, or, really, your lack thereof. Testing the speed of skin healing in an assortment of animals, a team of researchers has found that skin takes a lot longer to heal in humans than it does in other primates and mammals. Publishing their results in a study in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, the researchers say that the reason may be because of the loss of fur in humans around 2 million years ago.“Human wound-healing rates were found to be markedly slower,” the researchers report in their study. In fact, the rates were “approximately three times slower than those observed in non-human primates.” A Slower Speed of Skin Healing Researchers have long suggested that humans take more time to heal than other mammals. But, thus far, the research hasn’t had all that much to say about whether the slow healing of skin in humans is unique to humans or shared with other primates, too.“Human wound healing occurs slowly, and it remains unclear whether this characteristic is unique to humans,” the researchers write. “To address this issue, it is necessary to first clarify whether slow wound healing is … a common characteristic of primates.”Attempting to find that out, a team of researchers conducted a series of experiments involving healing in humans, other primates, and other mammals. Comparing skin wounds in humans with skin wounds in other primates (including chimpanzees, baboons, and two types of monkeys), as well as with skin wounds in other mammals (such as mice and rats), the researchers found that humans had a significantly slower rate of healing. While they healed at a rate of around 0.25 millimeters of skin a day, the other primates and mammals healed at a rate around three times that.“This finding indicates that the slow wound healing observed in humans is not a common characteristic … and highlights the possibility of evolutionary adaptations in humans,” the researchers write.Read More: How Closely Related Are Humans to Apes?Shedding Fur for Sweat and Slow HealingIndeed, the fact that the slow healing seen in humans is not seen in other primates indicates that the trait is a relatively recent adaptation, acquired after the emergence of the last common ancestor of humans and other primates. “This observation implies that the slower wound-healing rate in humans may have evolved at a certain point within the human lineage,” the researchers write.Intriguingly, it is possible that humans have slower skin healing than other primates because humans traded their fur for sweat glands around 2 million years ago, resulting in fewer hair follicles and thicker skin. Since hair follicles contain stem cells that support skin healing, fewer hair follicles could translate into fewer stem cells and a slower mending of scrapes and scratches in humans. Moreover, since fewer hair follicles means more exposure of the skin to the environment, humanity’s move from furry to smooth could’ve also meant a transition towards thicker (and thus slower-healing) skin, as more skin may take more time to heal. The researchers write that the human skin is three to four times thicker than the skin of other primates, a factor that could “contribute to the slower wound-healing rate observed in humans.”Swapping fur for sweat glands may seem silly, as it substituted a faster system of healing for a slower system. But the study stresses that humanity’s sweat glands brought their own benefits, too, providing humans with a better strategy for cooling off their brains and bodies. So, the next time you have a scratch or a scrape that won’t heal, consider the trade-off. Would it be better to be a whole lot furrier and a whole lot hotter, too?Read More: How Similar Are Humans and Monkeys? Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. Inter-Species Differences in Wound-Healing Rate: A Comparative Study Involving Primates and RodentsSam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.

Every spring, Earth passes through a cosmic trail left behind by one of the most famous visitors from the outer solar system: Halley's Comet. The result is the Eta Aquarids meteor shower, a dazzling display of shooting stars that’s set to peak this year during the night of May 5, 2025 into the early hours of May 6, 2025.If you’re hoping to catch one of the best celestial shows of the season, here’s everything you need to know about the Eta Aquarids — including what causes them, where they’ll be visible, and how you can get the best view.What Is the Eta Aquarids Meteor Shower?The Eta Aquarids meteor shower occurs when Earth crosses paths with the stream of debris shed by Halley’s Comet during its cyclical journey around the Sun.“Comet Halley takes 76 years to orbit once around the Sun,” says Nick Moskovitz, a planetary astronomer at Lowell Observatory. “When it approaches its closest point to the Sun, it heats up and leaves behind small bits of debris. That debris is like a trail of breadcrumbs that spreads throughout the orbit of Halley around the Sun.”Every year in early May, Earth happens to pass through that trail. “When that debris hits the Earth’s atmosphere at high speed, it vaporizes and produces meteors or shooting stars,” says Moskovitz. “The collection of meteors associated with comet Halley’s debris trail is known as the annual Eta Aquarid meteor shower.”When and Where to See the Eta Aquarids Meteor ShowerIn 2025, the Eta Aquarids meteor shower will peak overnight on May 5 and into the morning of May 6. And while the shower is active from roughly late April to mid-May, your best bet for catching the most meteors is to head outside after midnight within a few nights of the peak.In terms of visibility, the Eta Aquarids favor observers in the Southern Hemisphere, where more than 30 meteors per hour might be visible under dark skies. However, skywatchers in the Northern Hemisphere, including across the U.S. and southern Canada, can still expect a respectable 10 to 30 meteors per hour, depending on viewing conditions and a little bit of luck.“The Eta Aquarids are just one of two meteor showers linked to comet Halley. The other, the Orionids, appear every year in October, but the Eta Aquarids are generally the more active shower,” says Moskovitz. “The Eta Aquarids can be the third most active shower of the year.”How to See the Eta Aquarids Meteor ShowerNo matter the meteor shower, if you want to maximize your chances of seeing meteors, it’s all about location, patience, and preparation. Find an unobstructed dark-sky site that is far from city lights or other light pollution. Once you’re there, ditch any light sources and let your eyes adjust to the darkness for at least 20 to 30 minutes.“Find a dark spot to watch, away from all lights. Stay off your phone. Get comfortable and be patient,” says Moskovitz. “Best viewing will generally be after midnight on the evening of May 5/6.”The meteors will appear to radiate from the constellation Aquarius — hence the name Eta Aquarids — but you don’t need to stare directly at the meteor shower’s radiant to enjoy the show. In fact, looking about 45 degrees away from the radiant often provides a better chance to catch long, dramatic meteor trails.Why the Eta Aquarids MatterMeteor showers like the Eta Aquarids don’t just offer a stunning natural display — they also give scientists valuable insights into the life and behavior of comets like Halley.For example, projects such as LO-CAMS (Lowell Observatory’s Cameras for All-sky Meteor Surveillance) — which Moskovitz leads — utilize networks of cameras to help researchers reconstruct the 3D paths that meteors take through the sky. This helps them pin down what the meteoroid orbits were like before they hit Earth’s atmosphere. And that backward tracing can help reveal which comet likely shed the meteoroid material in the first place.“In the case of Eta Aquarid meteors,” says Moskovitz, “we see that their motion around the Sun closely resembles that of comet Halley, and this forms the foundation of linking the parent comet to the meteor shower.”But such observation efforts don’t just help researchers connect meteor showers to their parent comets. “For example, observations of meteors give us insight into the size of debris particles from the parent comet, which can be difficult to infer solely from telescopic observations of the comet,” says Moskovitz. “The sizes of these particles provide important clues into how comets lose material from their surface and what happens to that material in space.”So, whether you’re an amateur astronomer or just someone who could use a good night under the stars, the Eta Aquarids offer something for everyone, including a tangible connection with one of history’s most famous comets.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Time and Date. Eta Aquarids Meteor Shower 2025NASA. 1P/HalleyNASA. Orionids Meteor ShowerAstronomy. How to observe a meteor showerCosmos. RadiantNASA. Meteors and MeteoritesJake Parks is a freelance writer and editor who specializes in covering science news. He has previously written for Astronomy magazine, Discover Magazine, The Ohio State University, the University of Wisconson-Madison, and more.

The ancient Egyptians were astute astronomers. They often depicted the cosmos atop coffins. A new survey of such artwork suggests that they may have had a greater understanding of the Milky Way than previously thought, according to a study in The Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage.The study focuses on how the Egyptian Sky Goddess Nut has been depicted in several settings over time. The goddess was often portrayed as a naked, star-covered woman arching over the Earth, often above the Earth god Geb. Nut’s legend has her consuming the sun at night and giving birth to it at dawn.Ancient Egyptians and the CosmosThe study’s author, Or Graur, an astrophysics professor at the University of Portsmouth, England examined 125 images of Nut drawn from a list of 555 ancient Egyptian coffins. He was searching for both similarities and anomalies.He found the most telling discrepancy on the outer coffin of Nesitaudjatakhet, a chantress to Amun-Re who died about 3,000 years ago. The coffin depicts a wavy line across Nut’s star-covered body. This feature “recalls the Great Rift that cleaves the Milky Way in two,” according to the paper.Although the feature appears to be rare in ancient Egyptian coffin art, it has been seen in other settings. Similar lines run through a star-painted ceiling within Seti I’s tomb and also appear with Nut in the tombs of Ramesses IV, VI, and IX.“Hence, I argue that the undulating curve is a visual representation of the Milky Way and that it supports a previously suggested identification of ‘Winding Waterway’ as the Galaxy’s Egyptian name,” according to the article.Egyptian Astronomers and the Milky WayGraur’s conclusion based on the Egyptian art examination supports earlier work based on his studies of previous research, written records like the Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts, and Book of Nut. That article suggests that Egyptian astronomers used the Milky Way’s curvature to locate the constellation representing Nut.He also found clues about Nut’s cosmological role by analyzing other inconsistencies. For instance, she was only depicted as a star-covered being in about 25 percent of the images studied. That, along with the relative rarity of the wavy line motif, could clarify the god’s significance.“Though Nut and the Milky Way are linked, they are not synonymous,” according to the article. “Instead of acting as a representation of Nut, the Milky Way is one more celestial phenomenon that, like the Sun and the stars, is associated with Nut in her role as the sky.”Graur’s studies of Nut represent a portion of a larger body of work that examines how various cultures have depicted the Milky Way. He has linked a similar curve to art of the Navajo, Hopi, and Zuni tribes.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:The Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. The Ancient Egyptian Cosmological Vignette: First Visual Evidence of the Milky Way and Trends in Coffin Depictions of the Sky Goddess NutBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

High-frequency sound waves, known as ultrasound, have long been used as a non-invasive, safe method to visualize internal structures in the body. But recently, researchers have been pushing the boundaries of what ultrasound can do, including using it to treat medical conditions. Today, ultrasound is being used to destroy tumors, stop heavy bleeding, support drug delivery, and even influence brain activity in conditions like Parkinson’s disease.Now, a research team from Dell Medical School at The University of Texas has explored whether this same technology could be used to treat mood, anxiety, and trauma-related disorders (MATRD). The results, published in Molecular Psychiatry, are promising: Participants with depression and other mood disorders who received targeted ultrasound to specific brain regions reported significant relief from their symptoms.Treatment Options for Depression and Mood DisordersMajor depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, and PTSD continue to affect millions. Traditional treatments — like medication and psychotherapy — can be helpful, but they don’t work for everyone. Many patients experience side effects, incomplete relief, or simply don’t respond at all.That’s why expanding treatment options is so important. One key area of interest is the amygdala — a brain region that becomes notably hyperactive in mood and anxiety disorders. While antidepressants, benzodiazepines, and psychotherapy may influence amygdala activity, researchers wondered: could ultrasound offer a more direct and targeted approach?New Way to Change Brain ActivityUsing MRI guidance, researchers applied low-intensity, high-frequency ultrasound with pinpoint accuracy (within millimeters) to the left amygdala. This area plays a major role in emotionally charged thinking and memory. In the first part of the study, researchers found that ultrasound could successfully reduce activity in this region by altering blood-oxygen levels — a key marker of brain activity.In the next phase, participants received daily ultrasound sessions targeting the left amygdala for three weeks. The results? A noticeable drop in amygdala activity over time — and more importantly, improvements in mood."Participants showed marked improvements across a range of symptoms after just three weeks of daily treatments," said senior author Gregory Fonzo, assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences at Dell Med in a press statement. "What makes this approach revolutionary is that it's the first time we've been able to directly modulate deep brain activity without invasive procedures or medications."What’s Next: Clinical TrialsUltrasound treatment was well-tolerated with no reported side effects. The encouraging results have laid the groundwork for the next phase: double-blind, randomized clinical trials — the gold standard for proving treatment efficacy.“For decades, the amygdala has been a target of interest, but access has required either brain surgery or indirect approaches through cortical stimulation,” Fonzo said. “This technology opens a new frontier in psychiatric treatment, potentially offering relief to patients who haven’t responded to traditional therapies.”As ultrasound continues to expand beyond diagnostics, it’s emerging as a flexible, personalized tool that could transform the way we approach mental health — offering hope for those still searching for relief.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Johns Hopkins Medicine: Treatment-Resistant DepressionHaving worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts – ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition – into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When she’s not immersed in a popular science book, you’ll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.

When the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai volcano blasted gas and ash 30 miles into the atmosphere, it definitely made waves. The question is, what kind? The eruption may have been the largest in a half century — and the biggest since satellites began collecting data on such events. NASA estimated the volcanic eruption released 300 to 600 times as much energy as the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima.That energy rippled above most clouds and weather. It even reached Earth’s upper atmosphere, where satellites orbit. Understanding what kinds of waves reach such great heights following a volcanic eruption is important, because it can improve satellite safety and weather predictions in space.“The 2022 Tonga volcanic eruption caused significant perturbations across various layers of the atmosphere, even reaching altitudes where satellites orbit,” according to a. “This event motivates us to investigate how energy transmits from the Earth's surface to the upper thermosphere.”Volcano Impacts in SpaceTo learn more about what kind of waves emanated from the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha‘apai volcano and why they spread so far, a team of scientists tapped into satellite data and computer models. They investigated two possible culprits: Lamb waves and secondary gravity waves. Lamb waves are created by pressure and tend to hug the Earth’s surface, while secondary gravity waves originate when the initial eruption waves break apart.Computer modeling demonstrated that the secondary gravity waves, which have faster speeds and reach higher magnitudes, best matched the satellite data. The only way the scientists could make the computer model match the satellite data was by deploying a secondary gravity wave in the simulation.“This implies that the secondary gravity wave mechanism is likely the dominant process in generating the global-scale thermospheric waves,” according to the paper.Tsunami Waves and ShockwavesAlthough this study focused on waves that entered the atmosphere, the volcano produced others much closer to home.The blast also generated a tsunami as high as 50 feet that hit many Tonga island, destroying many homes and buildings there. The tsunami crossed the Pacific to North America, where waves over three feet tall crashed into the California and Oregon coasts.Seismometers in the Midwest detected a low-frequency shockwave. That shockwave travelled over 5,800 miles to reach Anchorage. It was also detected in Florida.Read More: 5 of the Most Explosive Volcanic EruptionsArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Advancing Earth and Space Sciences. Were Gravity Waves or Lamb Waves Responsible for the Large-Scale Thermospheric Response to the Tonga Eruption?Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Whenever a solar eclipse occurs, life seems to stand still for a brief moment. Humans watch the sky, animals display eccentric behaviors, but what about plants? It turns out that plant life has its own patented way of dealing with this astronomical event. A new study has shown that trees react to solar eclipses and even anticipate them hours in advance, synchronizing their bioelectrical signals in preparation.The study, published in the journal Royal Society Open Science, details this hidden power that comes ingrained in biological code of trees. The results reveal the amazing collective potential of trees, deepening our understanding of plants and their complex identity. Solar Eclipse Events and NatureThe influence of solar eclipses on organisms has mostly focused on animals rather than plants. Scientists took advantage of the 2017 and 2024 total solar eclipses to refresh their understanding of animal reactions to a darkening sky and cooling temperatures. During these events, they found that many animals tended to coordinate their actions, whether huddling together or moving as a group. Research has suggested that this may represent an evolutionary function meant to minimize danger from environmental changes.Plants haven't received the same attention as animals during solar eclipses, but the new study has proven that they are just as capable of coordinated behaviors. How Do Trees React to a Solar Eclipse?In the study, researchers focused on the electrome of trees — this network encompasses the bioelectrical signals they generate to communicate and coordinate responses to environmental changes. To see the electrome in action, the researchers measured bioelectrical signals in spruce trees located in the Dolomites during a partial solar eclipse. They accomplished this by setting up a system of sensors that could continuously collect data from the trees during the event. The data revealed that trees’ signals became more synchronized before and during the solar eclipse. Hours before the eclipse, the trees were able to anticipate the astronomical event and change their bioelectrical behavior to gear up for impending effects like drops in sap flow. This was most prominent in older trees, which may have gained such impressive anticipatory abilities by growing accustomed to eclipse patterns over their long lifespan. After the older trees braced themselves for the eclipse, the rest of the trees followed suit, demonstrating an intertwined connection shared by the whole forest. “This study illustrates the anticipatory and synchronized responses we observed are key to understanding how forests communicate and adapt, revealing a new layer of complexity in plant behaviour,” said lead author Monica Gagliano, an evolutionary ecologist at Australia's Southern Cross University, in a statement.The Need to Preserve ForestsResearchers aren’t certain about the specific cues that caused the trees to anticipate the solar eclipse. It’s possible, however, that the tree’s behavior may be a result of gravitational forces induced by the positioning of the Moon and Sun in the sky. The revelation that trees can band together to prepare for eclipses reflects how plant life is more than meets the eye. Additional details on the powers of plants — especially their capacity to anticipate and adapt to environmental changes — have yet to be uncovered, which is why researchers are stressing the importance of preserving trees.“This discovery underscores the critical importance of protecting older forests, which serve as pillars of ecosystem resilience by preserving and transmitting invaluable ecological knowledge,” said Gagliano in a statement.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Royal Society Open Science. Bioelectrical synchronization of Picea abies during a solar eclipseBulletin of the AAS. Extraordinary Darkness: A Participatory Approach to Assessing Animal Behavior During EclipsesJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine.