Researchers have successfully created solar cells from simulated moon dust that could fuel power. The cells the scientists developed should convert sunlight into energy efficiently and withstand radiation damage, they report in the Cell Press journal Device.The technique kills two space logistics birds with one stone: it could create electricity without involving heavy payloads. Building a solar power electrical plant with existing technology would likely require multiple expensive trips to ferry heavy components to the satellite.The solar cells used in space now are amazing, reaching efficiencies of 30 percent to even 40 percent, but that efficiency comes with a price, Felix Lang, a researcher with the University of Potsdam, Germany, and an author of the study, said in a press release. They are very expensive and are relatively heavy because they use glass or a thick foil as cover. Its hard to justify lifting all these cells into space.Turning Moon Dust into PowerVision of future solar cell fabrication on the Moon, utilizing raw regolith. Shown are robots that source raw regolith and bring it to a production facility, which fabricates perovskite-based moon solar cells. Later automated rovers or astronauts install the produced solar cells to power future Moon-habitats or even cities. (Image Credit: Sercan zen)Langs team developed a technique to create glass for the solar cells out of the Moons loose surface debris, called lunar regolith. Since glass for solar cells represents the heaviest, bulkiest component, creating the material on the lunar surface could reduce a spacecrafts launch mass by 99.4 percent, cut 99 percent of transport costs, and pave the way for lunar settlements.To test the idea, the researchers melted simulated Moon dust into moonglass, then paired it with a cheap and easily made crystal called perovskite. The combo proved very efficient; the technique replaces every gram of material that would need to be sent via space, and the new panels produced up to 100 times more energy than traditional solar panels.If you cut the weight by 99 percent, you dont need ultra-efficient 30 percent solar cells, you just make more of them on the Moon," Lang said in the press release. "Plus, our cells are more stable against radiation, while the others would degrade over time.Moonglass and Solar PanelsThe team tested that proposition by zapping both their version and conventional solar panels with radiation. The moonglass versions outperformed the Earth-made ones likely because standard glass slowly browns in space, losing efficiency. The moonglass, already with a brown tilt essentially built in due to chemical impurities, doesnt degrade further.The team wrote that making moonglass in space should be relatively easy since the ingredients dont require purification. Concentrated sunlight alone should provide enough heat to transform lunar regolith into glass.There are still challenges the scientists must overcome to make cells on the Moon rather than on Earth. They arent clear how the process will work in lower gravity. The solvents now used to process the perovskite are ineffective in a vacuum. And they are unsure how drastic swings in the Moons surface temperature could impact the materials stability.To address these issues, the team aims to launch a small-scale experiment to the Moon to test the technique in lunar, not laboratory, conditions.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Superbugs are pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, that present serious threats in hospitals, exposing vulnerable patients to higher risks of infections and even death. In the U.S. alone, an estimated 2.8 million infections and 35,000 deaths annually are caused by microbe strains that have developed resistance to multiple drugs one of the most significant global public health threats of this century.Unfortunately, hospitals, where the most vulnerable patients are concentrated, also serve as breeding grounds for these superbugs, fostering pathogens like the well-known MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus). This strain can cause serious bloodstream infections or pneumonia.A relatively new and dangerous fungal pathogen, Candida auris, is also on the rise, prompting researchers to quantify these fungal infections and study how they manifest in patients. Their research, which included clinical cultures of C. auris collected between April 1, 2019, and December 31, 2023, was published in the American Journal of Infection Control.The Danger of Candida auris SymptomsThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has classified C. auris as an "urgent antimicrobial resistance threat" for hospitals, following its first appearance in the U.S. in 2016. Discovered in Japan in 2009, the pathogen has spread worldwide, with health professionals fighting to contain it.C. auris is closely related to C. albicans, a common cause of candidiasis, including fungal infections like thrush and vaginal yeast infections. These infections tend to take hold in people with weak immune systems, such as the elderly, infants, and those with immune deficiencies.However, C. auris can cause more invasive forms of candidiasis that can spread into the bloodstream, central nervous system, and other internal organs posing a more significant threat to health. The challenge with treating this pathogen is its ability to be misidentified as other, less harmful types of candida, and its multidrug resistance. Many common antimicrobial drugs are ineffective against superbugs, partly due to the overuse of antibiotics in healthcare settings.C. auris Cases Are RisingA study focused on the health care system in Miami, Florida, highlights a troubling rise in C. auris infections, from just 5 cases in 2019 to 115 in 2023. Most infections were found in the bloodstream, but there has also been an increase in cases involving cerebrospinal fluid (the liquid surrounding the brain and spinal cord), as well as soft tissue and bone infections.The fungus primarily spreads through medical equipment such as catheters, as well as breathing and feeding tubes. The CDC has issued a comprehensive list of recommendations to curb the spread of C. auris, which includes strict cleaning protocols for surfaces and devices, and using single-patient rooms when possible.Additionally, all C. auris samples from the study showed resistance to fluconazole, a commonly used antifungal drug for treating serious fungal and yeast infections. Aside from its resistance to regular medical treatment, C. auris also shows resilience against common cleaning products and disinfectants.Low Risk to the General PublicIn 2023, there were already concerns about C. auris, with warnings about its spread across half of the U.S. states, indicating that authorities have been monitoring the issue for some time.Although C. auris can lead to severe or fatal illnesses, at present it doesnt pose much risk to the general public. Most healthy individuals are unlikely to contract the infection since they arent as exposed to C. auris, and their immune systems can typically fight it off. However, for people who are already ill and hospitalized, the growing threat is very real.In terms of preventing the spread of C. auris, isolation and contact precautions are critical. According to the researchers in a press release, "Our findings suggest that early identification of patients colonized with C. auris and the prompt deployment of infection prevention strategies can potentially reduce the incidence of bloodstream infections."This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Centers for Disease Control: Antimicrobial Resistance Facts and StatsCenters for Disease Control: Infection Control Guidance: Candida aurisHaving worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When shes not immersed in a popular science book, youll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.

One of the curious features of Taylor Swifts work is that she regularly uses words borrowed from astronomy and cosmology. Taylor Swifts discography frequently incorporates astrophysics terminology, point out Sophie Newman and Ana Sainz de Murieta at the Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation at the University of Portsmouth in the U.K. That reflects the role that science and technology play in shaping cultural phenomena. But for Swifties, it also raises the question of which areas of astrophysics most influence Swifts work. And for scientists, the possibility of whether this process of cultural osmosis could work in reverse to influence cosmological discoveries. Could Taylor Swifts thirteenth album hold the secret to the universes ultimate destiny? asks Jane Bright at the Department of Physics at Grinnell College in Iowa.Cosmic ChorusThanks to the work of Newman and Sainz de Murieta in one paper and of Bright in another, we now have answers suitable for the traditional early April publishing season.It turns out that Swifts astrophysical predilections can be inferred by analyzing word frequencies in her discography. We categorize words into various disciplines of astrophysics and find that multimessenger astronomy is promoted the most, both in Swifts total discography and throughout the Eras tour, say Newman and Sainz de Murieta. (Multimessenger astronomy combines data from several types of astronomical signals, such as light, gravitational waves, neutrinos and so on.) Bright goes further by mapping key characteristics and transitions in the universes history to corresponding themes and milestones in Swifts career. In this way, she can map cosmological eras to Swift eras. For example, Swifts reputation album maps to the cosmic dark ages about 500,000 years after the Big Bang when hydrogen atoms first formed but before stars had begun to shine, leaving the universe largely dark. reputation similarly felt like a period of darkness for Taylor, marked by media scrutiny, public feuds, and a deliberate withdrawal from the public eye, says Bright.And The Tortured Poets Department album maps to the period of reionization in the universe between 150 million and 1 billion years after the big bang. This is when the first stars began to shine and their light caused neutral atoms to become ionized. The Tortured Poets Department feels like a period of intense emotional and creative reionization for Swift, says Bright. Most striking of all is Brights prediction that Swifts next album, her 13th, will map to the final fate of the universe, which Bright says is not yet paired with any of Swifts other work. Astrophysicists have not yet determined how the universe will end. They speculate that it could be in a Big Freeze as the universe cools, becomes cold, empty and dark; it could be in the Big Rip where the inexorable expansion of the universe tears space-times apart; it could be in the Big Crunch where the universe collapses back on itself in a kind of reverse Big Bang.Nobody knows. But Swift might hold the key. As Bright points out: Lets be honest, if anyone is destined to hold the key to the universes fate, it might just be her.Signs of LifeA host of equally significant advances complements these important works. Not least of which is the discovery of evidence pointing to an advanced technical civilization on exoplanet GJ 1132b, which is about 1.6 times the mass of Earth and orbiting a red dwarf star some 41 light years away in the constellation of Vela.Frederic Hessman at the University of Gottingen in Germany, and colleagues, say spectroscopic analysis of the exoplanet reveals copious amounts of an unusual substance in the atmosphere. We report the detection of whisky in the atmosphere of the extrasolar super-Earth planet GJ 1132b, say the team. They point out that this cannot be explained by natural processes and therefore implies the existence of a technically advanced civilization engaged in massive distilling operations. The reason for the necessarily vast scale of production is either to produce rocket fuel for an interplanetary economy or, more likely, for an unusually high level of personal consumption.Interestingly, Hessman and co speculate that their discovery provides a compelling resolution to the Fermi Paradox of the seemingly high probability of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe and the lack of any evidence for it. Or as Fermi put it: where is everybody? Hessman and co provide the answer: a technically versed civilization would be incapable of achieving the higher technical levels necessary for the development of a detectable radio signature much less interstellar travel at the suggested rates of consumption.Clearly, important results (hic), published to the arXiv on 1 April 2025.References: The Eras Tour: Mapping the Eras of Taylor Swift to the Cosmological Eras of the Universe : arxiv.org/abs/2503.22795A Swift analysis of the Eras tour set list and implications for astrophysics research (Taylor's version) : arxiv.org/abs/2503.24188Detection of an extraterrestrial technical civilisation on the extrasolar planet GJ 1132b : arxiv.org/abs/2503.23788Other notable papers include:What is the Funniest Number? An investigation of numerical humor : arxiv.org/abs/2503.24175Higher multipoles of the cow : arxiv.org/abs/2504.00506The Universe is Odd : arxiv.org/abs/2503.22839Definitive Proof of the Classical Multiverse!: arxiv.org/abs/2503.22768PromoPlot: Covering open-access fees by filling wasted space in corner plots : arxiv.org/abs/2503.24254

If you matched a Swiss singer against a monkey vocalist in a yodeling contest, the non-human primate would win handily, according to a study published in the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.It turns out apes and monkeys possess vocal membranes in their throats that humans lack. Scientists suspect these structures slowly disappeared through evolution to allow for more stable speech. So what evolutionary advantages do these throat structures provide monkeys and apes? How do these membranes work? And why do monkeys need them?Yodeling, by definition, requires rapid back-and-forth shifts in pitch between a low note from the chest and a high one from the throat. The study explains what gives monkeys the competitive edge.How Monkeys Can YodelA team of researchers first recorded the calls of several primate species at La Senda Verde Wildlife Sanctuary in Bolivia. The recorded primates included the black and gold howler monkey (Alouatta caraya), tufted capuchin (Sapajus apella), black-capped squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis), and Peruvian spider monkey (Ateles chamek).Next, they used software to visualize and analyze the calls frequencies. They also performed CT scans on some primates to better understand the membrane structure in their throats. Finally, they observed how the primates used different kinds of calls, depending on the situation.Their analysis revealed that extremely thin vocal membranes sit above folds in the larynx that allow the monkeys to introduce what the scientists call voice breaks into their calls. Those breaks happen because sound production oscillates between the folds and membranes. Unlike the traditional Swiss yodeler, they dont need to shift between chest and throat for the quick pitch shifts which resembles the classic Tarzan yell.The mechanism is so effective that some monkeys can make what the researchers call ultra-yodels, with jumps in frequency up to five times what a human can deliver. In terms of octaves, New World monkeys can span three, while most human voices can barely extend beyond a single.Read More: How Similar Are Humans and Monkeys? Why do Monkeys Yodel?Although the researchers now know what mechanisms the monkeys use to make the sounds and how they deliver such dynamic vocal range, they are still left with why?Jacob Dunn, an evolutionary biology research at Anglia Ruskin University (ARU) in Cambridge, England and an author of the paper, hypothesizes that the monkeys leverage their larynxes for social reasons.This might be particularly important in primates, which have complex social lives and need to communicate in a variety of different ways, Dunn said in a press release. Its highly likely this has evolved to enrich the animals call repertoire, and is potentially used for attention-grabbing changes, call diversification, or identifying themselves.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Monkey yodels frequency jumps in New World monkey vocalizations greatly surpass human vocal register transitionsBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

With winter having come to a close, people living near the Rocky Mountains will have to reckon with the effects of snow contamination, an enduring issue magnified by mining activities in the region. A new study provides an unprecedented look at the heightened levels of contaminants that have been carried to the Rockies by winter storms.The study, recently published in the journal Environmental Pollution, has pinpointed mining operations in the Pacific Northwest as the source of contaminants. Mercury and other metals from these mines have been infused into snow that accumulates in the northern range of the Rockies. Since the western U.S. heavily relies on mountain snowpacks for water, increased snow contamination could entail dire consequences in the near future.The Significance of SnowpackIconic winter pastimes in the western U.S., like skiing and snowboarding, wouldnt be possible without mountain snowpack, which builds up and eventually melts by spring and summer. But the importance of snowpack extends beyond recreation, as it provides the region with water for hydropower, agriculture, and household use for millions of Americans.Snow contamination in the northern Rockies now threatens this vital component of the water cycle. The new study found that higher levels of metal contaminants Mercury, Zinc, Cadmium, and Antimony now plague the mountains snowpack.An Increase in ContaminationDuring the spring of 2018, researchers collected snow samples from 48 different sites throughout the Rockies and measured metal concentrations in each one. This not only included metals from mining but also metals like calcium that come from natural dust.The researchers compared the portion of metals that only came from natural dust to those that came from both dust and mining activities. They also looked at data from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program, which measured mercury and calcium in precipitation from 2009 to 2018. The results showed significant metal contamination in the northern Rockies, spanning across Montana, Idaho, and northern Wyoming.The snow samples showed us that contamination is higher in the northern Rockies, and that was really interesting, said Monica Arienzo, a hydrologist with the Desert Research Institute, in a statement. Looking at mercury contamination over time helped us say that 2018 is not just a fluke. When you start to see these trends that are consistent between different records, it makes you feel more confident that somethings really happening here.While contamination levels were within the EPAs guidelines for drinking water and aquatic life, the contaminants can cause the snowpack to reflect less sunlight and melt faster.Surging Snowpack ProblemsThe researchers tracked down the probable source of the contaminants by following previous winter storms and referencing a USGS dataset with information on mining and smelting locations.According to the study, the northern Rockies received many storms that moved in from the Pacific Northwest, while the southern Rockies received storms that moved across the Mojave Desert. The contaminants examined by researchers likely originated from mining sites near the northern Rockies and were transported by the storms.Our idea is that the dust from current and historical mining sites gets carried up into the mountains and deposited across our study sites, said Arienzo in a statement. This study shows the importance of continued scientific monitoring efforts, like the long-term USGS datasets we used here, as well as mitigation of current and historical mining sites.Future studies by the research team will survey mercury levels in tree rings and compare them to mercury levels in the snowpack to determine how the metal spreads throughout the environment. The West faces an uncertain future with regard to its snowpack, which has been declining year after year in some regions. Earlier snowpack melt, along with an increase in rainfall, could start to impact water availability and cause potential snow droughts, possibly warranting a revamping of water management strategies in the coming years.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:National Environmental Education Foundation. The American West's Disappearing Winter SnowpackJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine

The stars in our galaxy are serenading us with songs, that is, if we take the time to translate them.According to a new paper published in Nature, constant starquakes cause some stars to fluctuate in brightness a result that seems mostly unrelated to music. But by translating these fluctuations in brightness into fluctuations in acoustic frequencies, scientists can tune in to a stars sound, learning important information about its age and its other traits. Studying 27 separate stars in our galaxys Open Cluster M67, the authors of the paper found that a stars acoustic frequencies stop fluctuating at a specific point in its lifespan, allowing scientists to identify the age of a star with a stagnating sound. This research helps us better understand how stars evolve and provides a new tool to estimate their age, said Claudia Reyes, a paper author and an asteroseismologist at Australian National University, according to a press release. Which is crucial for studying the evolution of our galaxy. The Sounds of a StarquakesThough they seem quiet in the sky, the stars in our galaxy are always making music. Thats because starquakes, or vibrations in a stars interior, can cause continual changes in its brightness that translate into continual changes in its auditory frequencies. Starquakes occur in certain stars, leading to a continuous cycle of brightening and dimming, Reyes said in the press release. By carefully observing these tiny fluctuations in brightness, we can listen to a stars musical rhythm.With its own musical melody, a stars song can tell scientists about its age as well as its mass. These fluctuations are like musical notes, similar to the vibrations of a string, Reyes added in the press release. Each frequency tells us more about the stars size, chemical composition[,] and internal structure. Setting out to study these songs, the authors of the new paper turned to Open Cluster M67, an area of our galaxy that contains several subgiant and red giant stars. There, the team found that the fluctuations in a stars acoustic frequencies pause at a particular point in the stars life. At that point the plateau, according to the press release the star sends out a single auditory signal, repeating itself like a broken record. We discovered that the plateau occurs due to events in a specific layer of the star and at specific frequencies that are influenced by a stars mass and metallicity, Reyes said in the press release. This means we can predict when and at what frequency the plateau will occur during a stars life cycle, enabling extremely precise age estimates for stars currently in their plateau phase.Read More: Getting to Know Our Galactic Home: The Milky WayM67 Stars in SongThe 27 stars that the team studied werent selected for their specific musical stylings. Instead, they were chosen because their sounds made sense to compare. Similar in age, these stars all come from the same molecular cloud from around the same time, and they all show a similar chemical composition, a lot like siblings, according to the release. The Open Cluster M67 stars also offered an opportunity to listen in on star evolution. We studied frequencies emitted by stars in this cluster as they evolved into subgiants and red giants something that had never been fully explored before, Reyes said in the press release. Taken as a whole, the teams work shows that theres always something to learn when we listen, even when it takes a bit of stellar translation. Read More: 10 Facts You May Not Know About the Milky WayArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Sam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.

A skull of Buettnererpeton bakeri sees the light for the first time in 230 million years. This side of the specimen was uncovered in the fossil preparation lab at the University of Wisconsin Geology Museum. (Image Credit: Dave Lovelace, CC-BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsIt sounds like a paleontological crime scene: dozens of ancient amphibian fossils found buried relatively close together. The bones of the crocodile-sized creatures known as metoposaurid temnospondyls lie intact. What brought them there? What killed them? Why did the fossils remain undisturbed?Researchers report a detailed analysis of the single-largest collection of the species fossils found together in Wyoming in the journal PLOS ONE. But the survey of what appears to be a mass die-off provokes more questions than it provides answers.Mass Die-Off of Ancient AmphibiansThe site is especially interesting because it appears to offer what Aaron Kufner, a University of Wisconsin, Madison paleontologist and first author of the study, called in a press release a snapshot of a single population rather than an accumulation over time. Although the collection more than doubles the known number of individual Buettnererpeton bakeri fossils, it doesnt provide any solid answers about what brought them together or what ultimately killed them.They did determine that the burial site was likely a floodplain, based on ancient grains of sand and finely layered strata of sediment. But the cause of death remains elusive. It appears unlikely that they drowned in a current because some of the most delicate parts of the fossils appear well-preserved. Also, the pattern of the fossils placements doesnt indicate that any amphibians had been swept away.The amphibians, whose dense shoulder bones made them especially adept at sinking, likely submerged themselves in freshwater bodies and waited for unsuspecting prey. The researchers aren't sure if the amphibians clustered together to hunt as a group or to breed. They theorize that it is possible that they somehow become entrapped in the area, perhaps because of a blocked waterway. But they dont know for sure.Other Fossil BedsResearchers also dont know if this mass die-off was a singular event or a fate only this particular group suffered. Other fossil beds contain multiple metoposaurids but largely reveal a more scattered collection of bones that were likely moved by wind, water, or other forces.Whether or not this kind of die-off was common among temnospondyls is difficult to assess since few other sites have received this level of detailed examination and there is limited data regarding how temnospondyl burial varies with different environments, according to the press release.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

Prozacs approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1988 heralded the dawn of a new age in treating depression since it focused on serotonin, a brain chemical that, when in short supply, contributes to depression. It was more targeted and had fewer and generally less harsh side effects than the classic treatments tricyclics and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). Since then, a total of seven selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) that essentially help the neurotransmitter serotonin build up in the brain by blocking its escape, have hit the market, as have several serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), which target serotonin and another neurotransmitter associated with the disorder. They are joined by drugs such as Wellbutrin, which dont fit into specific chemical categories.Some cases of depression don't respond to medication, however. Scientists have hypothesized that inflammation which seems to play a role in many aspects of our health, including our immune system and our metabolism may also contribute to depression as well as the conditions response to treatment. Now, scientists in Australia have conducted work in rats that connect how inflammation can disrupt metabolism, thus making depression treatment more challenging, they report in the journal Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. If replicated in humans, the research could help better match medications to patients.Linking Inflammation to DepressionEven with access to treatment, 10 percent to 30 percent of depression cases appear stubborn to medication; they have therefore been labelled treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Exactly why this has remained a medical mystery. Part of the problem is that response to a particular antidepressant in terms of success as well as side effects can differ drastically from patient to patient.In rats, the researchers probed how biomarkers associated with inflammation were also connected to dopamine what Roger Varela, a University of Queensland, Australia researcher and a co-author of the paper, called the 'feel-good neurotransmitter, in a press release. Our brain feeds us dopamine as a reward to motivate healthy behaviors. The study showed that, indeed, inflammation and metabolic dysfunction can interfere with the brains dopamine factory. Then our brains rewards system closes up shop, leading to classic depression symptoms like anhedonia the inability to experience joy or pleasure. Persistent anhedonia is a signpost for TRD or for a depression treatment that may be only partially effective.This knowledge is informing our development of a blood test that can predict a persons likely response to different antidepressants, which may streamline their diagnosis, improve their treatment and save time and healthcare costs, Varela said in a press release. Offering Optimism for Those With TRD This study provides both short- and long-term hope for those diagnosed with TRD. The short-term solution doesnt involve any medication at all. Proper diet, exercise, and sleep can play a role in controlling inflammation and, indirectly, help manage depression.The longer-term prospects are positive as well. Even though this is pre-clinical work done in animals, it doesnt involve developing and testing a new drug for safety and efficacy. That process can take decades. Instead, it offers a path forward to a blood test that can help doctors match one of the many available medications to the patient based on immune system and metabolic markers.If we can gather a patients bioenergetic profile, we may be able to predict whether they will respond or not to a particular antidepressant, Varela said.This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. Inflammation and metabolic dysfunction underly anhedonia-like behavior in antidepressant resistant male ratsBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Life looked different after an asteroid crashed into the planet around 66 million years ago. The dinosaurs died out, the arboreal mammals declined, and the terrestrial mammals thrived. The traditional story thats told is that the asteroid decimated the dinosaurs and that the decimation of the dinosaurs allowed mammals to trade the treetops for the ground. But what if that traditional story is wrong? What if the mammalian transformation from arboreal to terrestrial was already underway at the time of the asteroid?According to a new paper in Palaeontology, things might have happened that way, as the move from arboreal to terrestrial was already being made by many mammals before the asteroid arrived. Mammals Adapted to the GroundWhen the asteroid arrived at the end of the Cretaceous period, the dinosaurs disappeared. But they werent the only creatures that were affected.Tree dwelling mammals struggled after the asteroid impact, said Christine Janis, a study author and a professor of paleontology at the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol, according to a press release.Though its clear that arboreal mammals declined while terrestrial mammals thrived in the aftermath of the impact, it isnt clear whether these mammals were also declining and thriving before the asteroid, too. Setting out in search of answers, Janis and her team turned to fossil fragments from the Late Cretaceous, before the disappearance of the dinosaurs.Studying the structure of these fragments, Janis and her team found that some species of mammals were already starting to switch from arboreal habitats to terrestrial ones, swapping out one home for another, millions of years in advance of the asteroid.It was already known that plant life changed toward the end of the Cretaceous, with flowering plants, known as angiosperms, creating more diverse habitats on the ground, Janis said in the release. What had not been documented was whether mammals were becoming more terrestrial, in line with the habitat changes.Read More: Did Humans and Dinosaurs Ever Live Together?Finding Traces of Mammal MovementLooking specifically to fragments of limb bones, Janis and her team found that many therian mammals, or mammals from the marsupial and placental branches of the mammalian family tree, were starting to transition out of a lifestyle in the trees to a lifestyle on the ground in the final years of the Cretaceous, when dinosaurs were still alive and well. While tracking these changes in the lifestyles of the therians would typically involve the investigation of full skeletons, Janis and her team were able to stick to the analysis of fossil fragments. Thats because the traces of the therians motion are contained in the articular surfaces, or the tips, of these fossils, where they indicate whether a specific species was more suited to arboreal or terrestrial movement. Weve known for a long time that mammalian long bone articular surfaces can carry good information about their mode of locomotion, but I think this is the first study to use such small bone elements to study change within a community, rather than just individual species, Janis said in the release.Ultimately, these findings indicate that the fate of the dinosaurs wasnt the only factor that influenced the lives and lifestyles of mammals around the end of the Cretaceous. The vegetational habitat was more important for the course of Cretaceous mammalian evolution than any influence from dinosaurs, Janis said in the press release.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Sam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.

In January 2025, researchers on the Schmidt Ocean Institutes R/V Falkor (too) had to divert their plans after an iceberg roughly the size of Chicago broke away from the George VI Ice Shelf, a floating glacier that had been attached to the Antarctic Peninsula ice sheet.As the iceberg broke away, it exposed an area of seabed previously unseen by humans. There, they found it teeming with a variety of sea life.An Iceberg the Size of the Windy CityThe iceberg, named A-84 by the U.S. National Ice Center, is about 19 miles long and 11 miles wide. The area is about 209 square miles, which is close to Chicagos 230 square miles. As A-84 broke away from the George VI Ice Shelf, it exposed an area of sea bed equal in size to the iceberg.After getting word that A-84 had separated from the ice shelf, the international research team on R/V Falkor (too) changed course and headed for the now exposed sea bed. What they found was astonishing.We seized upon the moment, changed our expedition plan, and went for it so we could look at what was happening in the depths below, said expedition co-chief scientist Patricia Esquete of the Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM) and the Department of Biology (DBio) at the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in a press release.We didnt expect to find such a beautiful, thriving ecosystem. Based on the size of the animals, the communities we observed have been there for decades, maybe even hundreds of years, Esquete added in a press release.The First Glimpse at a Thriving EcosystemOnce on location, the research team used Schmidt Ocean Institutes remotely operated vehicle, ROV SuBastian, to search the sea floor. After eight days, the team observed various sea life, including corals, octopuses, giant sea spiders, and sponges. Some creatures even dwelled at depths of over 4,000 feet.What surprised the research team the most was how much life was living beneath the ice sheet. In open ocean settings, deep-sea environments usually depend on nutrients that fall from the surface. However, this ecosystem has been covered by an ice sheet thats about 500 feet thick for centuries. The team believes that ocean currents must be bringing nutrients into this ecosystem, though more research is needed.The findings help researchers better understand how life thrives underneath floating ice shelves, as little information exists on the subject. According to the press release, this expedition is the first to use an ROV to observe marine life in this setting, and its believed that they may have encountered several new species, along with several already known to science.A Shifting ClimateThe data collected from this environment also helps the international research team study the Antarctic ice sheets past behavior as it has been shrinking due to climate change.The ice loss from the Antarctic Ice Sheet is a major contributor to sea level rise worldwide, said expedition co-chief Sasha Montelli of University College London (UCL), U.K., also a 2019 Schmidt Science Fellow, in a press release. Our work is critical for providing longer-term context of these recent changes, improving our ability to make projections of future change projections that can inform actionable policies. We will undoubtedly make new discoveries as we continue to analyze this vital data.Using autonomous underwater vehicles known as gliders, the team also analyzed glacial meltwater from the George VI ice shelf and how it would impact the physical and chemical properties of the area. They found that the George VI ice shelf had a strong meltwater flow and high biological productivity.Read More: Iceberg Versus Island in the South Atlantic OceanArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:NASA Earth Observatory. New Antarctic Iceberg Speeds OffBritannica. ChicagoA graduate of UW-Whitewater, Monica Cull wrote for several organizations, including one that focused on bees and the natural world, before coming to Discover Magazine. Her current work also appears on her travel blog and Common State Magazine. Her love of science came from watching PBS shows as a kid with her mom and spending too much time binging Doctor Who.

While volcanoes have brought profound changes to landscapes here on Earth, volcanic activity on other planets and moons has followed a different path. It's easy to imagine space volcanoes as even more ferocious and devastating versions of the ones scattered across Earth, but in reality, most of them have fallen into dormancy.Volcanic features have been observed on our fellow rocky planets, Venus and Mars, but they largely appear to be inactive right now. Some scientists, however, have suggested that current volcanic activity on Mars and Venus may not be so far-fetched after all, with new evidence emerging from recent studies.What Gave Earth Its Volcanoes?Earth boasts more than 1,500 potentially active volcanoes, with 50 to 70 erupting every year. But why is our planet so volcanically active? The answer lies in plate tectonics, the movement of divided plates that make up Earths crust.Tectonic shifts caused by heat-driven currents below the crust sculpt the planets most memorable landmarks, from mountain ranges to ocean trenches. The interactions of plates have also guided magma to the surface and spawned volcanoes, both by moving away from each other and pushing against each other.A third process behind volcano creation relates to hotspots, areas of Earths mantle where magma rises up from the depths of the planet. When a plate moves over a hotspot, a chain of volcanoes is created.The surfaces of other rocky planets appear to have been affected by ancient volcanic activity, but this would not have been caused by plate tectonics, a geological process that is exclusive to Earth. A more likely explanation is that volcanic features on these planets were created by hotspot-like activity or other variations of tectonics.Volcanism on Venus and MarsVarious volcanic features can be found on the rocky planets neighboring Earth. Mars contains volcanic plains formed by past eruptions and inactive shield volcanoes that are much more massive than Earths volcanoes; Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the entire Solar System, stands at about 2.5 times the height of Mt. Everest. This volcano is located in the Tharsis region of Mars, which is home to other similarly colossal volcanoes built from basaltic lava that welled up from deep within the planet.The verdict on whether or not Mars is still capable of being volcanically active doesnt appear to be set in stone. While the planet experienced intense eruptions over hundreds of millions of years, it has since cooled and ceased most activity. However, a few lingering signs like marsquakes and magma movement hint that Mars may not be completely idle.The same uncertainty has been true for Venus, until recently; while scientists previously believed that Venus volcanoes were inactive, new evidence is starting to push back against this notion.A 2023 study using data and images from NASAs Magellan mission (launched in 1989) found that a volcanic vent associated with Maat Mons, a shield volcano, changed in size and shape between February and October 1991. Another study published in 2024 built upon this discovery, identifying two locations where the formation of new rock may represent solidified lava from volcanic activity between 1990 and 1992.Although this seemingly confirms that Venus is still volcanically active, more information will need to be gathered by NASAs VERITAS mission, slated to launch in 2031 to study the planets surface.Volcanoes Across MoonsSeveral moons across the Solar System also feature volcanic mysteries. Ancient volcanic activity shaped the lunar crust of Earths own Moon lunar maria, basaltic plains visible on the Moon, are the result of lava flows filling basins that were left by meteorite impacts.Cryovolcanoes on icy moons like Triton (a moon of Neptune) and Enceladus (a moon of Saturn) function similarly to typical volcanoes, but they spew material like water, ammonia, and methane instead of molten rock.The one member of our Solar System that surpasses Earth in volcanic vitality is Io, Jupiters innermost moon. Containing around 400 powerful volcanoes, Io is influenced by Jupiters gravitational pull and the pull of the planets other moons. This tug-of-war causes layers of rock beneath Ios surface to jostle and heat up, melting solid rock into magma. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:British Geological Survey. How volcanoes formThe University of Arizona. Recent volcanism on Mars reveals a planet more active than previously thoughtNASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. NASAs Magellan Data Reveals Volcanic Activity on VenusNASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Ongoing Venus Volcanic Activity Discovered With NASAs Magellan DataThe Planetary Society. Mind-blowing pictures of the solar system's most volcanic worldsJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine

While a drop in libido is often associated with aging in women, its not just a female issue. Around 26 percent of men over 70 report a loss of sexual desire as well. Sex isnt just about reproduction physical intimacy fosters emotional connection, reduces stress, boosts the immune system, and generally improves mood. Understanding what affects our libido can reveal how lifestyle changes might enhance our sex drive and relationships.Age-related libido changes are seen across mammalian species. For example, older mice also show a decline in sexual activity, leading to lower offspring production.Researchers from the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), alongside teams from Qingdao University and the University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, initially set out to investigate how intermittent fasting in male mice might affect their offspring. However, their study, published in Cell Metabolism, uncovered something unexpected: long-term fasting increased sex drive across all age groups. Their hypothesis? A change in neurotransmitter concentrations in the brain, which could potentially be used to treat libido loss in humans.Intermittent Fasting and SerotoninCalorie restriction, such as intermittent fasting, offers benefits beyond fat loss, including improved metabolic function, lifespan, and heart health. By reducing food intake for specific periods, fasting can manage weight and prevent some health issues.One way intermittent fasting may influence libido is through serotonin, a neurotransmitter produced primarily in the gut. Serotonin plays a role in regulating sexual behavior in the brain, often inhibiting sexual desire. Its made from tryptophan, an essential amino acid that we must get from our diet. If fasting leads to less tryptophan intake, it could result in lower serotonin levels in the brain, potentially reducing its inhibitory effects on libido.Read More: Should You Use Serotonin Supplements?Less Food, More SexIn the study that sparked this hypothesis, male mice were put on an intermittent fasting regimen: 24 hours of unlimited food, followed by 24 hours of fasting. After 22 months, the researchers introduced the fasting mice to females who hadnt fasted.Though reproductive outcomes werent the original goal, the researchers were surprised to find that the fasting males produced an unusually high number of offspring. Upon closer examination, they ruled out effects on the males reproductive organs or hormones.Eventually, we realized: it is a matter of behavior. The fasting males had significantly more sexual contacts than mice that could eat freely. In other words, these animals had an unusually high frequency of mating and, as a result, an unusually high number of offspring for their age. Their mating behavior more than compensated for the age-related physiological limitations, said study lead Dan Ehninger in a press release.Further investigation revealed that all the sexually active, fasting mice shared one common factor: significantly lower serotonin levels.Potential of Fasting in HumansFor intermittent fasting to increase sex drive, it takes some time, said Yu Zhou, professor from the Qingdao University, in the news release. Based on our experiments, the minimum duration appears to be somewhere between six weeks and six months.To apply these findings to humans, more studies are needed, of course. However, the similarity between serotonins role in sexual behavior in both mice and humans and the known side effects of certain antidepressants that increase serotonin and lower libido makes it plausible to consider fasting as a potential solution, not just for men but for women as well.In my opinion, it would make sense to investigate this in more detail, said Ehninger in the release, I see potential for therapeutic application. A lack of sexual desire is not necessarily perceived as problematic but some people suffer from it. Fasting could potentially serve as a useful addition to existing treatment options.Read More: The Weird Quirks of the Male LibidoArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Johns Hopkins Medicine: Intermittent Fasting: What is it and how does it work?Journal of the American Geriatrics Society: Sexual function of men ages 40 to 79 years: the Olmsted County Study of Urinary Symptoms and Health Status Among MenHaving worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When shes not immersed in a popular science book, youll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.

In 1919, a student at the University of Cambridge had an extra ticket to a lecture being given by an astronomer who had just returned from a trip off the west coast of Africa where he observed the stars and a solar eclipse.Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin, then 19 years old and an undergraduate student, took the extra ticket. The lecture changed her life and inspired her to become an astronomer.For three nights, I think, I did not sleep, she later wrote.In turn, Payne-Gaposchkin changed astronomy when she proposed what the stars were made of. Although scientists would later come to accept her ideas and even try to take credit for them Payne-Gaposchkin faced discrimination and rejection throughout her distinguished career.What did Cecilia Payne Discover?By the mid-1800s, astronomers thought the same elements that made up life on Earth also made up the stars, comets, and other planets. Advancements in telescopes allowed scientists to see the sky in a new way, but many scientists kept with the same thinking.In 1924, Payne-Gaposchkin was a doctoral student in physics at Harvard University. She had finished her undergraduate studies at the University of Cambridge in England, but the school didnt grant graduate degrees to women, and she had to come to the U.S. for advanced study.Using the telescope in Harvards observatory, Payne-Gaposchkin saw the universe in a new way.She calculated that stars were mostly made of hydrogen, as in a million times more hydrogen, than the scientific community had assumed, says Donovan Moore, author of What Stars Are Made of: The Life of Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin.Cecilia Payne and Leaving the Door Open At the time, atomic fusion was not yet a thing, and scientists thought the sun had a similar elemental makeup as Earth. Payne-Gaposchkin conducted a spectral analysis, which found that the stars were made up almost entirely of hydrogen and helium.Even Payne-Gaposchkin was initially surprised by her results. But she trusted her math and presented her findings in her doctoral dissertation. Although she was correct, leading scientists in the field of astrophysics werent ready to accept a new idea, particularly one that was coming from a graduate student, let alone a woman.When she showed her findings to [Henry] Norris Russell, the Director of the Princeton Observatory, the Dean of American astronomers at the time, he flatly told her she was wrong, Moore says. But Cecilia believed in her findings, and she was clever. She re-wrote her thesis to state that hydrogen was almost certainly not as preeminent as she had found.The almost certainly, Moore says, was Payne-Gaposchkins way of leaving the door open to someday being found to be correct.A Stellar CareerPayne-Gaposchkin was indeed found to be correct, and scientists now accept that the stars (including the sun) are made up of 73 percent hydrogen and 25 percent helium.As the scientific community adjusted to the idea that the stars and sun were not the same as the Earth, Payne-Gaposchkins detractors rushed forward to claim credit for themselves.Years later, she was, in fac,t proven to be right by the very man who told her she was wrong: Norris Russell. He got the credit, Moore says.History would later correct itself, and Payne-Gaposchkin would become known as the scientist who truly identified what the stars were made of. But, Payne-Gaposchkin would not be remembered as prominently as other scientists who also made critical discoveries.A Stellar DeterminationAfter Payne-Gaposchkin had corrected her dissertation by hedging that hydrogen was almost certainly not as prominent, she could graduate with her Ph.D. in 1925. Although she received near universal skepticism for her ideas, Moore says she believed in herself and did not bend to the criticism. She also remained determined to have a career in astronomy, even though the field was almost entirely male and extremely unwelcoming of women.It ultimately paid off, Moore says. She was finally recognized for her discovery, married, brought up a family, and was named the first female professor at Harvard to be promoted through the ranks of tenure. She later became chairman of the Harvard Department of Astronomy.Scientists would later remember Payne-Gaposchkin for her accomplishments and how her determination to be part of the scientific community would one day open doors for other women who wished to do the same. Vera Rubin who discovered that dark matter was dominant in the universe and initially received pushback has cited Payne-Gaposchkin as an inspiration.In the end, Payne-Gaposchkin prevailed. Three years before her death in 1979, she received a lifetime achievement award from the American Astronomical Society. Ironically, the award was named in honor of Henry Norris Russell, one of her early detractors and one of the scientists who tried to claim credit for her work.It was extremely difficult for a woman to be taken seriously in the 1920s. She, unfortunately, found herself in that position. Its also unfortunate that not a lot has changed, Moore says. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:The American Scholar. SCIENCE: The Ladies of Observatory Hill: Annie Jump Cannon and Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin Donovan Moore. What Stars Are Made Of: The Life of Cecilia Payne-GaposchkinWomen in their Element. Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin and the Elemental Composition of Stars The American Astronomical Society. Henry Norris Russell LectureshipEmilie Lucchesi has written for some of the country's largest newspapers, including The New York Times, Chicago Tribune and Los Angeles Times. She holds a bachelor's degree in journalism from the University of Missouri and an MA from DePaul University. She also holds a Ph.D. in communication from the University of Illinois-Chicago with an emphasis on media framing, message construction and stigma communication. Emilie has authored three nonfiction books. Her third, A Light in the Dark: Surviving More Than Ted Bundy, releases October 3, 2023, from Chicago Review Press and is co-authored with survivor Kathy Kleiner Rubin.

After making a splash in early 2025 with the identification of its 183-million-year-old fossilized skin, the plesiosaur fossil MH7 (Holzmaden specimen), uncovered in Germany, is making headlines again.A new study published in PeerJ Life and Environment looks at how this plesiosaur fossil may offer clues to how this species evolved and expanded around Europe 180 million years ago.The Holzmaden specimen gives us an unprecedented look at Plesiopterys wildi in a more mature stage of development, allowing us to refine our understanding of this species and its place in plesiosaur evolution, Miguel Marx, lead study author from Lund University, said in a press release. It also suggests that distinct plesiosaur communities may have evolved in different regions of the European seas during the Early Jurassic.Plesiosaur Evolution During the Jurassic PeriodAccording to the study, researchers have identified this specimen as Plesiopterys wildi, one of only two ever uncovered. This finding, according to the study, is instrumental in helping researchers understand how these creatures diversified during the Early Jurassic Period.The fossil, which was uncovered from the Lower Jurassic Posidonia Shale in 1940, was remarkably well-preserved and nearly complete. Finding a plesiosaur fossil is rare compared to other fossilized marine reptiles from that time, like ichthyosaurs.Studying Plesiosaur EvolutionFrom the fossil, the research team determined that this specimen was a subadult when it died. The other specimen of P. wildi known as SMNS 16812, was younger than MH7. A full adult fossil of this species has yet to be found.However, researchers can now tell much more about the species, thanks to the find. With two specimens, researchers can see how they may have evolved away from related species within the European epicontinental marine basin. This information could prove that P. wildi is from a different taxon. These findings also lead researchers to believe that P. wildi was likely an endemic species to that area, meaning it was the only place they were found.After a phylogenetic analysis, the researchers placed P. wildi as an early-diverging plesiosauroid, closely related to Franconiasaurus brevispinus, suggesting a gradual evolutionary transition towards more derived cryptoclidids of the Late Jurassic, according to a press release.Cryptoclidids are a genus of plesiosaur reptiles that lived during the Jurassic Period.A Pivotal PlesiosaurThanks to P. wildi and the MH7 fossil, researchers can now infer that the Jurassic Period was a pivotal time for plesiosaur evolution that laid the groundwork for more dominant plesiosaur species down the road.Our research reinforces that plesiosaurs were already evolving specialized adaptations and distinct regional lineages much earlier than we used to believe, Sven Sachs, a co-author of the study, said in a press release. This has important implications for understanding how marine reptiles responded to environmental changes in the Jurassic seas.With so much knowledge gained from one species, like what their skin was like to how they evolved, who knows what else researchers might gain from studying P. wildi. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:A graduate of UW-Whitewater, Monica Cull wrote for several organizations, including one that focused on bees and the natural world, before coming to Discover Magazine. Her current work also appears on her travel blog and Common State Magazine. Her love of science came from watching PBS shows as a kid with her mom and spending too much time binging Doctor Who.

"That's so random" is a common saying people use when they see or experience something unexpected. But as a concept in physics, true mathematical randomness has long proven elusive until now. A team of computer scientists using quantum computing methods has, for the first time, generated a truly random number, they report in the journal Nature.By now youre asking yourself, what is true randomness, anyway? Doesnt choosing a number between, say, one and a trillion, count as truly random?Physicists would say no. Every existing seemingly random task still operates under physical or mathematical rules.Certified Randomness TheoryThe ability to create randomness that can truly be proven as such is called certified randomness, and is more than an esoteric, mind-boggling mathematical exercise. It can, in theory, make encryption much more secure, or ensure that processes such as jury selection are truly fair.Such certification it turns out, is as tricky as generating the random number. It requires proving that the computer checking for randomness is truly an independently operating third party.The main challenge for any client receiving randomness from a third-party provider, such as a hardware security module, is to verify that the bits received are truly random and freshly generated, according to the paper.To create their random number, the researcher used a technique called random circuit sampling. It essentially leans on quantum computing (which operates under different rules than classical computing methods) that somehow produces more randomness than it can take in. This task is unachievable by classical computation.Putting Quantum Computing to the TestThe research had two steps. First, the team generated random circuits and sent them to an untrusted remote quantum computer via the Internet, according to a press release. That computer was then asked to return corresponding samples. This back and forth was so fast it could not be replicated by even the fasted conventional (i.e., non-quantum) supercomputer.Just how fast was it? The output performed more than one million trillion operations per second which is really, really fast.To certify that the number generated was indeed truly random, the researchers essentially asked a non-quantum supercomputer to guess what it was. The supercomputer, it turns out, was not up to the task. Therefore, the output could indeed be certified as truly random.This work marks a major milestone in quantum computing, demonstrating a solution to a real-world challenge using a quantum computer beyond the capabilities of classical supercomputers today, Marco Pistoia, a computer scientist with JPMorganChase and an author of the study, said in a press release. This development of Certified Randomness not only shows advancements in quantum hardware, but will be vital to further research, statistical sampling, numerical simulations and cryptography.In other words, the number the team generated through its quantum computer really was random.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Early warning systems for natural disasters have undoubtedly saved countless lives. Detectors that monitor signs of impending earthquakes, hurricanes, and tornadoes, among others, provide crucial hours sometimes days for us to take evasive action.What if we could do the same thing for heart attacks? A group of French researchers working with some U.S. colleagues, have designed an Artificial Intelligence (AI) tool that could help do just that, they report in the European Heart Journal.Early Detection for Heart AttacksCardiac events contribute to over 5 million deaths a year. They often strike like a bolt from the blue sometimes killing people without warning signs and no known history of heart disease. To look for hidden patterns that might provide potential heart attack victims a heads up, the researchers first investigated electrocardiograms data from over 240,000 patients. They essentially looked at several million hours of heartbeats."By analyzing their electrical signal for 24 hours, we realized that we could identify the subjects susceptible of developing a serious heart arrhythmia within the next two weeks, Laurent Fiorina, an author of the study and researcher at the Paris Cardiovascular Research Centre (PARCC), said in a press release. If left untreated, this type of arrhythmia can progress towards a fatal cardiac arrest.They probed the data with AI tools and identified weak signals that could precede arrhythmia. Based on that information, the research team developed an AI algorithm that could identify people at risk of any arrhythmia serious enough to trigger cardiac arrest. They based their tool on an artificial neural network that simulates how the brain talks to the heart.Read More: Repairing the Damage After a Heart AttackPotentially Life-Saving PredictionsThe tool could predict such events within two weeks in over 70 percent of cases. The monitoring method could potentially change how heart disease is detected and treated.Until now we'd been trying to identify patients at risk over the medium and long term, but were incapable of predicting what could happen in the minutes, hours or days that precede a cardiac arrest, Eloi Marijon, research director at PARCC and an author of the study, said in a press release. Now, thanks to artificial intelligence, we can predict these events in the very short term and potentially take action before it's too late."The team will continue to refine the tool, then test it in clinical trials to ensure its accuracy. If it pasts those tests, well have the equivalent of a warning siren that tells us to seek help to prevent a heart attack.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Sweetened vanilla, calming lavender, or fragrant jasmine and lotus may fill your home with enticing aromas. But new research shows that the supposed stress-reducing and mood-enhancing effects of scented products may come with unwanted indoor pollution.While these products are widely used to create a cozy atmosphere, their emissions can impact indoor air quality, especially in spaces with limited ventilation, says Nusrat Jung, a civil engineer at Purdue University.Jung became interested in the quality of our indoor atmosphere after walking through grocery store aisles that had scented candles, wax melts, and other fragrance-releasing items.These products are marketed as safe and clean, but we wanted to investigate what else they might be releasing into the air besides pleasant scents, she says.Scented Wax Melts and PollutionIn research published recently in Environmental Science & Technology Letters, Jung and her colleagues examined the effects of scented wax melts that are often advertised as pollution-free. They used a laboratory recreation of a typical home at Purdue filled with sensors that could monitor the kinds of chemicals inside.Scented products have released volatile organic compounds and terpenes chemicals responsible for everything from aromatic essential oils to the skunk-like smell of marijuana. But previous research by Jung and her colleagues revealed that flame-free candles, or wax melts, release more terpenes than candles with flames. Once released, terpenes react with ozone in the air and form nanoparticles.These particles, despite being formed in a non-combustion process, reached levels that pose potential respiratory risks, challenging the perception of scented wax melts as a benign household product, Jung says.Do All Scented Products Cause Indoor Pollution?While the teams recent study looked at flame-free scented candles, previous work from Jung examined the impact that other fragrant products have on indoor air quality.Her team found in an earlier study that hair products like sprays persisted for a while indoors, especially after being exposed to devices like hair curlers or straighteners.In fact, Jungs work shows that scented products in general are significant contributors to indoor pollution. In one study they found that scented products can create more breathable nanoparticles than gas stoves or diesel engines.It may not be limited to homes. Scented products like air fresheners often used in cars release many of the same volatile organic compounds to mask lingering stench all in a relatively smaller area than your average home. But Jung hasnt specifically studied these potential impacts, and said further research would be needed to get a clearer idea of any problems they might be causing.Health Problems from Scented Products The types of health problems these chemicals can cause isnt entirely clear, but they may pose issues for our breathing systems some of them long-term.Some [volatile organic compounds] are classified as hazardous air pollutants, while airborne nanoparticles have been linked to lung inflammation, cardiovascular effects, and other adverse health outcomes, Jung says.She noted that actual exposure from these potentially harmful chemicals might vary based on a number of factors, though.Read More: 5 Eco-Friendly Decorations for the Holiday SeasonWhat to AvoidOther recent research has found homes vary greatly in their amount of indoor air pollution. Ventilation, occupancy patterns, and household location can all effect how polluted homes are. The authors of that paper say that monitoring indoor pollution in your home is becoming increasingly important, as a result.With more time spent working from home, understanding the factors that affect air quality within households is increasingly important, said Owain Rose, a coauthor of the paper, in a press release.Jung has recommended always keeping on exhaust fans such as those above stoves or in bathrooms when using these products. But the best thing would be to avoid hair care products, or scented candles, and waxes altogether.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Environmental Science & Technology Letters. Flame-Free Candles Are Not Pollution-Free: Scented Wax Melts as a Significant Source of Atmospheric NanoparticlesEnvironmental Science & Technology Letters. Siloxane Emissions and Exposures during the Use of Hair Care Products in BuildingsJoshua Rapp Learn is an award-winning D.C.-based science writer. An expat Albertan, he contributes to a number of science publications like National Geographic, The New York Times, The Guardian, New Scientist, Hakai, and others.

(Image Credit: Alexander_Evgenyevich/Shutterstock) NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsIn the 1960s, physicists showed how light could interact with itself in intriguing ways thanks to a process known as second-harmonic generation. In the right kind of material, two photons of a certain frequency can interact to produce another photon of twice the frequency, turning red light into green, for example. Since then, physicists have exploited these non-linear optics in techniques ranging from precision measurement to quantum computing. Yet, one persistent challenge has remained. Nonlinear optical devices must be crafted with a single, unchangeable function determined during fabrication. And this limits their utility and function.Now that looks set to change thanks to the work of Ryotatsu Yanagimoto at Cornell University in Ithaca, and colleagues, who have unveiled a programmable photonic chip that promised to reshape optical science and the technology it enables.Sculpted LightA key process in non-linear optics is phase matchingthe ability to synchronize two different light waves to keep them in phase. Ordinary materials do not usually allow this in their raw state and so must be carefully "sculpted" through complex nanofabrication processes. One example is to grow patterns of semiconductor material on the surface to form a grating that forces light of a certain wavelength to interact in a nonlinear way. This allows laser light to interact with the electrons inside the material in a nonlinear way that keeps their phases in sync. This is known as a (2) effect.However, this pattern is fixed, as is the type of interactions the material allows and any potential applications. Yanagimoto and co's breakthrough circumvents these limitations. They have found a way to induce the same kinds of changes in a material using an external light field. So by beaming a pattern of light onto the material, it can create the same kind of (2) effect. This ingenious mechanism allows the team to create versatile phase-matching gratings that are customizable in real-time. This allowed us to create distinct spatial light profiles across multiple wavelengths, say the team.The underlying mechanics involve a slab waveguide composed of a silicon nitride core, a photoconductive silicon-rich nitride layer, and an indium tin oxide electrode. When illuminated by structured green laser light, the photoconductive layer becomes locally conductive, inducing a programmable nonlinearity. In one demonstration, Yanagimoto and co used the technique to spell out the name "Cornell" in second-harmonic light over time. They achieved this by using structured illumination on the photoconductive layer, selectively activating the electric-field-induced nonlinearity across the chip's surface. When the bias voltage was applied, these illuminated regions became active, generating second-harmonic light at twice the frequency of the input laser beam but modulated over time in a way that spelt out the name of the university. This adaptability should open the floodgates for various applications. For instance, programmable nonlinear photonic chips could enable sophisticated quantum computing architectures, allowing a single device to execute multiple quantum gates or generate quantum states tailored to specific computational tasks. The chips also promise significant advancements in classical optical communications, enabling ultra-fast all-optical signal processing and reconfigurable optical computation. Our work shows that we can transcend the conventional one-deviceone-function paradigm, say Yanagimoto and co.The team also developed real-time feedback techniques that allow them to produce small changes in output as needed. This allows them to address one of the longstanding issues with traditional nonlinear optical techniques: fabrication imperfections. Traditional components are notoriously sensitive to minor imperfections which can drastically affect performance. But the real time adaptability sidesteps this challenge by dynamically compensating for these variations, greatly enhancing reliability and yield.Practical ApplicationsThe Cornell team's device is still in an early developmental stage. Its current nonlinearity strength, while modest, can potentially be increased by a factor of ten or even one hundred through further engineering refinements, say Yanagimoto and colleagues. Such improvements should help propel this technology from the laboratory bench to practical use.Reflecting on their achievement, Yanagimoto and co say the work paves the way toward a future where optical devices are not merely passive conduits but active participants, dynamically responding to the demands of their environments and users. This development signifies a new era in optics, one where adaptability and programmability are fundamental rather than exceptional.Ref: Programmable on-chip nonlinear photonics : arxiv.org/abs/2503.19861physics1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

The impending eruption of Alaskas Mt. Spurr is a timely reminder that, if you live near a volcano, you should be prepared in case it blows. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) says there are 170 potentially active volcanoes in the country, and chances are you could live near one. But how should you prepare for an eruption and how can you recover after? Planning for a Volcano EruptionThe first question one should ask themselves is, do I live within range of a volcano, and if so, how close? The USGS can help you assess your hazard. Although households within 20 miles are under the most danger, even people living as far as 200 miles away could be susceptible to some hazards, such as falling ash.The next question is, what is the status of your volcano neighbor? The USGS can help you find an answer and provide monitoring. Once you have determined your risk and are aware of how to monitor for changes to it you should make plans for what to do before, during, and after an eruption.Have an idea of a safe evacuation route, as well as a place to stay, in the event of an eruption. Consult local officials on possible routes, and be aware that this could vary depending on different hazards based on the kind of eruption. The initial blast; flying debris; hot gases; and fast-moving mud, rock, water (known as lahars) all present different hazards, and, therefore different avoidance strategies. For instance, for an eruption scenario involving a lava flow, your escape route should avoid valleys and riverbeds. For one including gas or ash, consider the winds direction and avoid a downwind route. Make sure all family members know and understand the plan. Here are some additional steps to take when planning for an eruption, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Emergency kits: These are useful to have for other disasters as well not just volcanic eruptions. Dont forget prescription medicines as well as enough food and water for a week. Also make up a separate kit for your evacuation vehicle. Include food, flares, booster cables, maps, tools, a first aid kit, a fire extinguisher, sleeping bags, a flashlight, and batteries. Keep your gas tank full.Shelter: Be prepared for a shelter in place order. Make sure you have plenty of containers for clean water. Remember that, if the order comes, you should also fill your sinks and bathtubs with as much clean water as you can.Additional protection: Have plastic sheets available if necessary to protect windows and vents from ash. Also have enough N95 respirator masks available for all family members. Make sure they are approved models. How to Evacuate When a Volcano Will EruptWhen a volcano will erupt, be sure to follow the Volcano Notification Service for updates and date information about eruptions. Follow evacuation orders from local officials promptly, tune in via radio or internet, and listen for sirens be aware of what they mean. Dont wait.Read the SituationThis is where your preparation comes in handy. Before you drive away, review your evacuation plans, assess the situation, and use the one most appropriate for your scenario. Rubble and ash may fly through the air, so if that is a factor, avoid a downwind evacuation route. If lava may flow, choose your non-valley route. Avoid driving in heavy ash. If you must, keep windows closed and dont run the air conditioner.Protect YourselfIf you are outside, wear clothes that will protect you from falling ash. Put on your N95 mask, if directed, or if you see ash in the air.If you are ordered to shelter in place, start filling all available water containers, as well as sinks and bathtubs. If you have coolers for frozen food, place water containers in coolers. If you have supplies, it's important to take shelter from the ash in the location that you're in. Be sure to cover windows and seal doors. Stay in an interior room, away from doors and windows, according to Ready of U.S. Department of Homeland Security.Good CommunicationListen to any available news source. Monitor conditions online if you have cellular internet connections. Maintain contact with friends or family outside the area.Read More: 5 of the Most Explosive Volcanic EruptionsWhat to Do After the EruptionAccording to Ready, dont return home until youve been given the signal to do so by the proper authorities. If you have been sheltering in place, stay inside until you receive an all clear. Here are some other tactics to follow in your return.Check in: Reach out to friends and relatives through any available means especially through text messages and social media. Remember that phone services may be overwhelmed during the emergency, so consider other ways to communicate.Avoid Ashes: Dont drive in heavy ashes, even if they have stopped falling. Doing so will stir them up potentially clogging your engine and stalling your vehicle.Continue to wear a mask until advised to do otherwise. This is especially important for people with breathing conditions like asthma. Dont try to remove ash from your roof. If you are able to clean up, wear protective clothing and avoid skin contact with ash and debris.This article should be used for informational purposes only.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:United States Geological Survey (USGS). Volcano Hazards ProgramUnited States Geological Survey (USGS). Volcano Notification Service (VNS)Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. NIOSH-Approved Particulate Filtering Facepiece RespiratorsCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Preparing for a Volcanic EruptionBefore joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

In January 2025, the World Health Organization (WHO) released new guidelines recommending a switch from typical table salt to alternatives containing less sodium, aiming to reduce worldwide sodium intake by 30 percent in the next five years.One of the leading causes of death globally is cardiovascular disease and often, eating too much salt can contribute to that. The average person consumes significantly more salt than is healthy, resulting in an intake of four grams of sodium per day. Its hard to get away from it: Our taste buds are used to the savory foods we cook at home or order at restaurants, and sodium is also found in many processed foods not only as a flavor enhancer, but as a preservative.One alternative health experts tout is potassium-enriched salt, or potassium chloride. Like sodium chloride, its a naturally occurring compound, containing more potassium than it does sodium. It is generally safe to eat, according to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and could be used as a direct salt alternative for those without pre-existing conditions or vulnerabilities. Over-Consuming SaltExcessive consumption of sodium is common across cultures and borders, though certain methods of food preparation in different regions can further exacerbate salt consumption (such as pickled or preserved vegetables in Asian cuisine or processed meats in Western.)Eating too much salt puts our health at risk. Excess sodium and chloride increase the amount of fluid in our blood, which can in turn strain vessel walls and force our hearts to work harder. This eventually leads to a rise in blood pressure, which can increase the risk of harmful events like stroke, kidney disease, and heart attacks.In 2019, it was estimated that nearly 1.25 billion people in the world had hypertension, or high blood pressure. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) likewise stated that high blood pressure was a primary or contributing cause of nearly 700,000 deaths in the U.S. in 2022. Potassium-Chloride as a Healthier AlternativeIn some cases, scientists argue, its preventable changing the way we consume salt is one of the most cost-effective ways to do it. Potassium chloride then comes into the picture as a seemingly serendipitous alternative to your typical sodium chloride. While on average, people eat much more salt than they need, they dont get as much potassium as the WHOs recommended 3.5 grams per day and both minerals are necessary to maintain properly balanced fluids, for example, and muscle health. Potassium chloride, for the most part, has a miniscule difference in taste, particularly when potassium content doesnt stray above 30 percent.Moreover, potassium chloride has been shown to lower blood pressure, a double-edged sword mitigating the more harmful effects of sodium. One analysis of 21 studies concerning salt alternatives and interventions found that those using potassium chloride had significantly improved levels of blood pressure, compared to those still using regular salt. Meanwhile, a large trial of nearly 21,000 individuals who were at higher risk of cardiovascular disease demonstrated that substituting regular salt with potassium-enriched alternatives led to a 13 percent reduction in new cardiovascular events over a period of five years.Though the long-term impact of salt alternatives is lesser studied so far, researchers have observed that participants using alternatives had improved survival rates for cardiovascular disease and all other causes of mortality in general. Their risk of stroke mortality also decreased.Switching to an alternative that more-or-less tastes the same as the sodium chloride we know and love seems like a better path than weaning off salt altogether, at least from a home-cooking standpoint. So, is there a catch?Is Potassium Chloride Safe?While otherwise healthy individuals may be able to reap the benefits of switching to potassium-enriched salts, there are also potential risks to consider. Particularly in individuals with conditions like chronic kidney disease, theyre at higher risk of hyperkalemia which results from too much potassium in blood, putting people at risk of life-threatening arrhythmias and even sudden cardiac death.Additionally, people taking certain medications such as ACE inhibitors may be at greater risk of hyperkalemia due to excess potassium. Evidence largely supports the health benefits of potassium chloride, but experts say more research is needed to determine the precise impact of salt alternatives on occurrences of hyperkalemia. In any case, its recommended to speak to your medical provider first before making any major dietary changes to potassium.You Dont Have to Sacrifice FlavorMuch of our salt intake also comes from processed foods, which presents a much more challenging conundrum when needing to cut down on salt. While changing the way foods are prepared could help decrease regular salt consumption across the population, reformulating industry-wide practices is difficult and slow. Some researchers have also pointed out the necessity to further clear up the role of potassium chloride as an effective preservative.Its possible that certain sodium-heavy sauces like soy sauce could benefit from using potassium-enriched substitutes, but potassium chloride itself often comes with a much higher price tag as well. In the meantime, though, there are alternatives to even the alternative you could try. One example is the DASH Diet, or Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension. Named the best heart healthy diet and best diet for high blood pressure in 2025 by the U.S. News & World Report, this eating plan is supported by the National Institute for Health. It sets weekly nutritional goals and recommends eating vegetables, fruits, and whole grains while limiting foods high in saturated fats, sugary beverages, and sweet treats.Using different mixes of seasonings can also serve to reduce our reliance on sodium. Onion powder, garlic, ginger, herbs, and vinegars are just a few of the many ways to cut down on salt, without sacrificing flavor. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Cleveland Clinic. Are Salt Substitutes a Healthy Way to Lower Your Sodium Intake? The Center for Disease Control and Prevention. High Blood Pressure FactsNational Library of Medicine. Effectiveness of salt substitute on cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and metaanalysisExpert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy. The best of best buys: public health values of potassium-enriched salt substituteNational Library of Medicine. Potential use of salt substitutes to reduce blood pressureAmerican Heart Association. Potassium-Enriched Salt Substitutes as a Means to Lower Blood Pressure: Benefits and RisksNational Institute for Health. DASH Eating PlanUniversity Hospitals. Salt Substitutes: A Healthy Alternative to the Real Thing?Katie Liu is a science journalist covering a variety of topics for Discover, ranging from space to human health to archaeology, among others. Her interest in science writing began during her time at Northwestern University, from where she graduated in 2024.

Ever had poison ivy? If so, you probably noticed that scratching made the rash much worse. But scratching an itch, especially one as intense as that caused by poison ivy, is nigh irresistible and feels so satisfying.If you think about it, says Daniel Kaplan, who is a dermatologist and immunologist at the University of Pittsburgh, thats a little curious. When comparing this action to pain, pain causes you to stop what youre doing and tend to the wound. But the pain also creates a memory that tells you not to repeat whatever you were doing when you got hurt or to wear gloves the next time you prune the roses.From an evolutionary standpoint, theres a clear and obvious benefit to that pain, he says. But with scratching, the damage feels good. Its as if when you cut yourself with a knife, you were immediately compelled to grab the knife and do it again. Wheres the advantage in that?Because itching and scratching have been observed throughout evolution dogs scratch, cats scratch, fish scratch there must be some benefit to it, says Kaplan. Scratching can help remove mites and other irritants from the skin, of course, but that doesnt explain why we scratch rashes.Why Scratching Makes the Rash WorseTo solve this enigma, Kaplan and his team began by looking into why scratching makes rashes worse. Their research was published this January in Science.The answer involves mast cells. Mast cells are activated by allergens (poison ivy, for example), causing inflammation and itching. The researchers showed that scratching activates pain-sensing neurons, causing them to release substance P (a neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling and inflammation), which in turn activates mast cells via a second pathway. So, by activating mast cells through two different pathways, scratching triggers even more inflammation on top of the inflammation that made you itch in the first place. And thats why scratching makes the itch worse.The Benefit of ScratchingSo Kaplan and his team discovered how scratching makes the rash worse. But whats the benefit to all this? So far, it seems as if scratching = bad. Case closed. But not so fast. Mast cells also play a role in protecting the skin from harmful bacteria. Indeed, the team found that scratching reduces the presence of Staphylococcus aureus on the skin. Staphylococcus aureus is the most common culprit responsible for skin infections.To Scratch or Not to Scratch?So, whats the takeaway here? Should you scratch or not? Kaplan says thats the question people always ask him. The answer, he says, is simple: Dont scratch. Thats because the bacterial infection is rare; the bigger risk is the allergic reaction thats causing the itching, he says. Scratching will just make your rash worse and your life more miserable.Christopher Brooks agrees and adds that scratching breaks down the skin barrier, which can lead to worsening of conditions like eczema and psoriasis. Brooks is an allergist and immunologist at The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center. However, he stresses that while these findings do help explain why we itch, we should still try to scratch as little as possible. Avoiding scratching wont make you more likely to get a skin infection.Kaplan hopes this research, which was supported by the National Institutes of Health and the German Research Foundation, will lead to better therapies for eczema.I think it's quite possible the reason [previous] trials failed is they were silencing the wrong pathway on mast cells. Kaplan adds that his experiments were done on mice (mice who were wearing tiny, adorable Elizabethan ruffs, no less) and have not yet been done on humans.Read More: Why Scratching an Itch Feels So GoodArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Avery Hurt is a freelance science journalist. In addition to writing for Discover, she writes regularly for a variety of outlets, both print and online, including National Geographic, Science News Explores, Medscape, and WebMD. Shes the author of Bullet With Your Name on It: What You Will Probably Die From and What You Can Do About It, Clerisy Press 2007, as well as several books for young readers. Avery got her start in journalism while attending university, writing for the school newspaper and editing the student non-fiction magazine. Though she writes about all areas of science, she is particularly interested in neuroscience, the science of consciousness, and AIinterests she developed while earning a degree in philosophy.

With popular genetic testing company 23andMe filing for bankruptcy, what does the future of ancestry DNA look like?A team of researchers from the University of Michigan says it is going to look more like a movie than a portrait, thanks to a new statistical model that can be used to trace ancestry in a new way.Redefining the Family TreeThis new statistical method, developed by Gideon Bradburd and fellow University of Michigan (U-M) researchers Michael Grundler and Jonathan Terhorst, promises to give a more complete picture of human ancestry. The team refers to this as a movie version of ancestry, which provides not only your genetic makeup but where your ancestors originated and how they moved to get where they are today.The statistical method, called Gaia (geographic ancestry inference algorithm), combines modern genetic sequencing with ancient DNA techniques to craft a nuanced and unique portrait of ancestral connections.At the beginning of the process, researchers start with a simple assumption: that when people move, they often move locally. Gaia then takes this assumption and merges it with both modern locations and genetic structure to create a dynamic picture of ancestry.This new modern method, published in Science, traces back to Nobel Prize- winning geneticist Svante Pbo and his work in ancient DNA. Pbo developed the groundbreaking tools that make genotyping ancient DNA possible.Thanks to these tools, the team from U-M was able to trace the spread of human populations and to see how these populations entered and left specific geographic areas at specific points in time. By using modern genetic sequencing alongside population tracking and movements, Gaia can provide a comprehensive family tree that extends over centuries.Tracing AncestryThis new model of ancestry tracing differs greatly from the common methods employed by many popular companies. In comparison to the type of report Gaia can create, the typical personalized ancestry reports scope is incredibly small and only provides a snapshot of a family tree from a particular place and time.Often, when you receive an ancestry report, you are provided with a percentage calculation revealing something like you are 50 percent Irish. What this actually means is that you likely have a lot of current relatives, like second or fourth cousins, currently living in Ireland.According to the U-M research team, your family tree is much more active than this static result, and so is the family tree of all humans.Because our pedigrees explode so quickly, they also must collapse in the same sense that you and I must share many, many relatives at many points back in time, and thats true for every person alive on Earth, said Bradburd in a press release. Were all extraordinarily closely related to each other.The Future of Population GeneticsGaia was created partially in response to a call from the National Academy of Sciences asking the field of human population genetics to move away from race-based labels.When it comes to population genetics, racial categories and labels are archaic and often imprecise, leading to inaccurate predictions about genetic variation. This is because sharing a racial category or label does not mean that two people are genetically or ancestrally similar.A model like Gaia can help rectify this problem by highlighting how much genetics can shift over time in a certain geographic region.This new method can also be used in areas beyond human genetics, including tracking the emergence of viruses, the divergence of animal populations, and other genealogical tracking.Currently, the research team at U-M is collaborating with scientists across the globe. Researchers in Australia are using Gaia to learn how mosquitoes colonized islands in the South Pacific, while teams in Michigan and Ohio are using it to understand the history and dispersal of the Massasauga rattlesnake.Read More: DNA Ancestry Tests Can Expose Family SecretsArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Science. A geographic history of human genetic ancestryAs the marketing coordinator at Discover Magazine, Stephanie Edwards interacts with readers across Discover's social media channels and writes digital content. Offline, she is a contract lecturer in English & Cultural Studies at Lakehead University, teaching courses on everything from professional communication to Taylor Swift, and received her graduate degrees in the same department from McMaster University. You can find more of her science writing in Lab Manager and her short fiction in anthologies and literary magazine across the horror genre.

Wheat can be vulnerable to diseases that may increase as the Earth warms. A team of scientists across five continents may have found a way to help wheat fight back, according to two papers published in the journal Science."Climate change is causing diseases to appear in places previously unseen, Brande Wulff., a researcher at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) in Saudi Arabia and an author of the study, said in a press release. We need more study of plant immunity to develop technologies that will protect valuable food crops."An Urgent Need to Boost Plant ImmunityWheat provides food for billions of people as well as the animals they eat. But the grain is susceptible to infectious diseases, just like humans and animals. Stem rust sometimes called the polio of wheat has historically killed crops and played a role in many famines. Scientists have developed some wheat strains resistant to the disease, but pathogens that affect plants can mutate and evolve.As in humans, plants use their immune systems to resist infections. To help the plants do so more effectively, scientists first need to understand how the disease takes hold and destroys them.The new research does just that. It details how the molecular machinery in plant cells responds to stem rust, which is characterized by brown pustules on wheat stems and leaves. The first paper describes how the mechanism works. The second study investigates how that molecular machinery can fight multiple forms of fungus harmful to plants.Read More: 100-Year-Old Wheat Could Help Feed the WorldDiscovering a Wheat-Protection StrategyAccording to the press release, the team of scientists across five continents led by Wulff, are trying to engineer wheat so that it is immune against infection.Kinases are the key. These molecules, which are present in many organisms, act as cellular ferries. They transport other helper molecules to the correct part of the cell. Often, once they reach their destination, they trigger a complex sequence of molecular events. Essentially, once the appropriate molecule reaches its destination, it then acts as the finger that knocks over the first domino in an intricate layout.Understanding How Wheat ReactsThe surprise in this study is that not one, but two kinases handcuffed together are involved in wheats immune response to wheat rust. This is the first time such a mechanism has been observed, according to the paper.When theres no pathogen present, the two kinases are bound together thus the handcuffs analogy. This renders them inactive.But when a pathogen binds to one of the two, it effectively acts as a key, unlocking both kinases. Understanding how this mechanism works may help plant scientists engineers wheat and perhaps other crops to deploy this mechanism, perhaps against multiple diseases not just wheat rust."A majority of countries see wheat as critical to their food policy and food security, said Wulff. The more we understand how wheat reacts to pathogens the more we can sustainably secure the food supply for the world's growing population."Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Generative AI (Gen AI) tools like ChatGPT have become an ever-present part of many peoples personal and working lives. And whether they are causing more harm than good to our cognitive skills or problem solving is a growing concern. Experts are worried that dependence on Gen AI is making users who lean heavily on these tools dumber, according to research findings.In a recent paper, a team from Microsoft and Carnegie Mellon University found that higher confidence in Gen AI is associated with less critical thinking, while higher self-confidence is associated with more critical thinking amongst a group of 319 knowledge workers from a wide range of fields.Their findings showed that while Gen AI tools can improve efficiency at work, they may also inhibit critical engagement with work and can potentially lead to long-term overreliance on the tool and diminished skill for independent problem-solving.Decline in Critical Thinking SkillsThis declining analytical engagement translates to less fact-checking, and more time reading through AI-generated text rather than creating content, amongst more.For Anjali Singh, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Texas, Austin who wasnt involved in the study, this moving away from creative tasks, and offloading them on to Gen AI instead, is one of the major concerns emanating from this paper. If you practice less of those kind of skills, your critical thinking is likely to get negatively impacted, says Singh. Unfortunately, though, the answer to this question is far more complex. Singh believes that the impact of AI on cognition really depends on how we use it and on who is using it.She also points out that the Microsoft study focused on professionals and experts in their field. Her own research concerns novices, a group that can include students or people who are new to a profession or field. It's for them that Gen AI tools can be especially harmful, she says, as they may rely on them to carry out more tasks, or thinking on their behalf than experts in their field. As a result, it can, in the long-term, lead to a decrease in what kind of cognitive skills they use in a given context, and how they use them.Read More: AI and the Human Brain: How Similar Are They?Artificial Intelligence in EducationAnother paper published in 2024, for example, found university students facing high levels of academic workload and time pressure resorted to using ChatGPT more frequently, ultimately increasing levels of procrastination, affecting their memory, and harming grades amongst some participants in the research. On the flip side, others are enthusiastic about the potential of Gen AI to help build cognitive skills, or make us smarter, with other studies underlining a positive influence in some cases.A study published last year, for example, found that incorporating ChatGPT in classwork resulted in significant improvements in some students critical, creative, and reflective thinking scores compared to those who didnt use it.As technology in education continues to grow, we suggest that ChatGPT can be a valuable mechanism for academics in higher education to consider, the researchers wrote.They are not alone in backing ChatGPT and similar tools in educational settings. Rossella Suriano, a researcher in the department of Cognitive, Psychological and Pedagogical Sciences and Cultural Studies at University of Messina, led a study that found a positive influence of ChatGPT on critical thinking skills.The study highlighted that interaction with ChatGPT can indeed promote the development of complex critical thinking skills, Suriano says. But, in her view, thats also contingent on how these tools are used.This research suggests that using it actively and consciously, ChatGPT can become a valuable tool for developing advanced cognitive skills in an educational setting, she says.How to Function with AI ToolsFor Suriano that means understanding how they function and, importantly, recognizing their limitations. Just as we would, or shouldnt necessarily, believe everything we read online, or a person tells us.The prompt we provide and the attitude with which we engage profoundly influences the response, she adds. Instead of diminishing cognitive capacity, when used correctly, these tools could actually enhance our ability to think and reflect independently. There is still more to learn as much of the research investigating Gen AIs influence whether helpful or harmful on our cognitive abilities is short-term in nature; thats a problem that needs to be resolved, says Singh, particularly when it comes to younger people.Even for experts, it is yet to be seen what the impact that Gen AI is having in the long term, says Singh. There hasn't really been enough time to see the kind of impact these tools will have on our cognition.Unfortunately, that means any answer to the question of whether ChatGPT and other Gen AI is making us dumber is somewhat vague; it could, but it also might make us smarter, if used in the right way.Read More: The Pros and Cons of Artificial IntelligenceArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Microsoft and Carnegie Mellon University. The Impact of Generative AI on Critical Thinking: Self-Reported Reductions in Cognitive Effort and Confidence Effects From a Survey of Knowledge WorkersInternational Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education. Is it harmful or helpful? Examining the causes and consequences of generative AI usage among university studentsComputers and Education: Artificial Intelligence. ChatGPT effects on cognitive skills of undergraduate students: Receiving instant responses from AI-based conversational large language models (LLMs)Learning and Instruction. Student interaction with ChatGPT can promote complex critical thinking skillsSean Mowbray is a freelance writer based in Scotland. He covers the environment, archaeology, and general science topics. His work has also appeared in outlets such as Mongabay, New Scientist, Hakai Magazine, Ancient History Magazine, and others.

Salt makes almost everything taste better we add it while cooking to enhance the flavor of other ingredients, sprinkle some into baking to balance out sweetness, and enjoy it in our favorite snacks, like chips, pretzels, and microwave popcorn. Besides these obvious sources, many highly processed foods foods we wouldn't ordinarily consider salty contain an unexpectedly high amount of sodium, such as canned goods, salad dressings, cold cuts, various cheeses, flavored yogurts, ketchup, and much more.While lower salt consumption has long been recommended for people with cardiovascular issues like high blood pressure, researchers from the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare have presented new research showing a strong link between higher sodium intake and the risk of obesity. This research is set to be presented at the European Congress of Obesity in May 2025.Why We Crave SaltDietary salt, typically in the form of sodium chloride (NaCl), is necessary for essential bodily functions, such as regulating fluid balance and supporting nerve impulses and muscle contractions. When sodium levels drop, the "salt-thermostat" in our brain activates, triggering a craving for more salt.Long ago, when our ancestors lived in oceans, the cells of those early lifeforms evolved to thrive in a solution as salty as seawater. As our predecessors became terrestrial and moved to dry, hot environments, salt became scarcer, and the craving for sodium likely developed as a survival mechanism to ensure adequate intake.Today, that early evolutionary make-up, coupled with the easy access to salt that modern life provides, leads to plenty of opportunities for overconsumption. Studies have shown that when animals are deprived of salt, they often "overshoot," consuming far more sodium than necessary to restore balance, suggesting that salt homeostasis tends to go in only one direction.Read More: Why Is the Ocean Salty?Connecting High Salt with ObesityA study led by Annika Santalahti and her team explored the growing body of evidence linking salt intake with obesity. They analyzed data from the National FinHealth 2017 Study, estimating sodium intake through food frequency questionnaires and urine samples.Statistical analysis revealed that the median salt intake was above recommended levels, with men consuming over 12 grams and women over 9 grams daily. The World Health Organization recommends no more than 5 grams per day, while the American Heart Association suggests only 2.3 grams, about 1 teaspoon.Additionally, the researchers found that participants with higher sodium intake or high urine sodium levels were more likely to suffer from general or abdominal obesity, with the latter increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease.These results strengthen the evidence of an association between sodium intake and obesity, with similar findings observed for both dietary sodium and urine sodium concentration. It is important to gain more understanding about the biological mechanism of the relationship, said the study authors in a press release.Processed Foods Are the CulpritWhile the study emphasizes that the link between salt and obesity isn't fully understood, the authors note that, over time, high salt intake might affect satiety hormones (which control hunger and signal when we're full) or could simply serve as a marker for the overall quality of the foods we eat.Further research is needed on the overall nutrition and nutrition quality of those with high sodium diets, but also research on the biological mechanisms of high sodium intake, for example on satiety, the gut microbiome and body composition, explained the authors in the news release.They also point out that the food industry plays a significant role in the population's salt intake, as most of the sodium we consume comes from processed foods rather than unprocessed natural products. In addition, broader changes in the food environment, such as whether meals are home-cooked or consumed from restaurants or takeout, also influence how much salt we consume.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:American Heart Association: Shaking the Salt Habit to Lower High Blood PressureEuropean Association for the Study of Obesity: 32nd European Congress on ObesityPhysiology and Behavior: Salt craving: The psychobiology of pathogenic sodium intakeHaving worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When shes not immersed in a popular science book, youll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.

When the 2020 pandemic sent everyone home to shelter in place, kids began online school and adults telecommuted using videoconferencing. Suddenly, people saw a constant reflection of themselves mirrored on the screen.There we were, side-by-side in little boxes next to our colleagues as we pretended to listen to a department meeting or a budget update. Our every move was mirrored back to us, and it gave many people a chance to scrutinize their appearance.Small smiles revealed previously unnoticed wrinkles or laugh lines. Speaking exposed crooked teeth. Bad lighting highlighted untouched roots. For hours on end, people in Zoom meetings were stuck looking at their imperfections.Social scientists also had to look at themselves in teleconferences, which prompted researchers to question whether dissatisfaction with ones appearance was a factor in Zoom fatigue. Theyve found that staring at ourselves has prompted both a mass unhappiness with appearance and an uptick in cosmetic procedures.What Is the Zoom Boom? In news articles or online forums, people called their unhappiness with their appearance Zoom Face. This led to a so-called Zoom Boom, in which people considered or sought cosmetic procedures.But was this a real phenomenon? In a 2025 study in Laryngoscope, a team of researchers examined data from Google Trends from January 2019 to December 2022 to determine if there was indeed an increased interest in cosmetic procedures.Searches for blepharoplasty (eyelid surgery), Botox, facelifts, and neck lifts all increased during the pandemic and then experienced a sustaining Zoom Boom, meaning people kept considering these options. Searches related to fillers, nose jobs, and tummy tucks initially saw an increase during the pandemic but then went back to pre-pandemic levels.Zoom and Dysmorphic Concerns During the height of the pandemic, clinical psychologist Toni Pikoos and her research partners also questioned whether the new interest in cosmetic procedures was indeed related to videoconferencing and the new reality of having to see yourself on screen.It was early in the COVID-19 pandemic, and all of our work, social lives, and health appointments had suddenly shifted to this new online format. I couldn't help but notice that I was often watching the video of myself during these calls probably more than I had ever looked at myself before and starting to notice things about my face that I had never paid much attention to before, says Pikoos, a post-doctoral research fellow at Swinburne University in Australia.In a 2021 study in Aesthetic Surgery Journal, Pikoos and her research partners surveyed 335 Australian adults to determine their video conference usage, whether they focused on themselves during calls, and if they used any manipulation techniques. The participants also took the Dysmorphic Concern Questionnaire to see if they had any dysmorphic concerns.Dysmorphic concern is a preoccupation with a perceived flaw in physical appearance often something that feels noticeable and concerning to the individual, but would be slight or even non-existent to others, Pikoos says.The results, Pikoos says, were stunning. I found the sheer volume of people who were finding new appearance concerns on video, which also then translated into a greater desire to access beauty and cosmetic treatments like cosmetic injections quite alarming, she says.Zoom Leading to Dissatisfaction More than one-third of the study participants admitted they found a new appearance concern due to Zooming. Participants with dysmorphic concerns were more likely to have a greater focus on themselves during a Zoom call and increased appearance concerns. They were also more likely to engage in manipulation techniques such as using a ring light during calls, angling their cameras, or using a camera filter.Participants who found a new concern were also more likely to report a greater interest in seeking cosmetic procedures like Botox. The authors concluded there was a link between Zooming, unhappiness with ones appearance, and an interest in getting work done.Why does Zoom lead to such dissatisfaction? Pikoos says there are several reasons, including how Zoom captures us doing everyday motions like talking, smiling, taking a sip of water and then reflecting it back to us with a mirror image we arent used to seeing.Zoom also gives us a point of comparison with others. Everyone on the call is situated in neat little boxes, and it can allow a person to make a side-by-side comparison they wouldnt be able to do in real life. This, coupled with the distortion that can come from close-up camera lenses which can alter the size, shape and color of how our faces appear led to the emergence of new appearance concerns, Pikoos says.The Zoom Boom and Zoomed OutWhile some people may seek fillers or other cosmetic fixes, other studies have found that many people carry a greater psychological burden as a result of their dissatisfaction with their appearance.In a 2022 study in Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, researchers surveyed 613 adults and found that dissatisfaction with how one looked on Zoom was a psychological mechanism for Zoom fatigue. Such fatigue was about 15 percent higher in women than men and 11.1 percent higher for Asian than White study participants.For people who dont like the way they appear, that psychological load is harmful, says Rabindra (Robby) Ratan, the lead author of the study and an associate professor and AT&T Endowed Chair at Michigan State University.The study results supported other work that found that mirroring self-image on Zoom is the source of some serious self-consciousness.We found multiple studies now supporting the idea that if you turn off self-video, self-consciousness goes down, Ratan says.So, is it best to turn the camera off and appear as a black box during a call in order to avoid unnecessary self-scrutiny? Ratan says that will unlikely work for people who have a tendency to self-monitor, regardless of whether they have a video feed of themselves.I dont think the camera-off solution is the best, he says. I think the video filter, avatar feature is the best.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. Facial Appearance Dissatisfaction Explains Differences in Zoom FatigueEmilie Lucchesi has written for some of the country's largest newspapers, including The New York Times, Chicago Tribune and Los Angeles Times. She holds a bachelor's degree in journalism from the University of Missouri and an MA from DePaul University. She also holds a Ph.D. in communication from the University of Illinois-Chicago with an emphasis on media framing, message construction and stigma communication. Emilie has authored three nonfiction books. Her third, A Light in the Dark: Surviving More Than Ted Bundy, releases October 3, 2023, from Chicago Review Press and is co-authored with survivor Kathy Kleiner Rubin.

A surprising observation from NASAs James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has revealed a vestige of a galaxy that peeked through the early universes dense fog just 330 million years after the Big Bang. The recent sighting of ultraviolet light from this distant galaxy called JADES-GS-z13-1 has astonished researchers, shattering prior expectations of early galaxy formation.Shortly after the Big Bang, the developing universe was clouded by a thick fog of neutral hydrogen, blocking the light emitted by galaxies. However, GS-z13-1 defied all odds and broke through the barrier with a wavelength of light known as a Lyman-alpha emission. Radiated by hydrogen atoms, the emission appeared much stronger than expected; astronomers are now trying to decipher where the radiation from this galaxy came from and what this could mean for continuing studies of the early universe.James Webb Space Telescope Pins RedshiftThe JWSTs Near-Infrared Camera (NIRc) and Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) were instrumental in identifying the galaxy and estimating its redshift, which reflects its distance from Earth based on how its light is stretched out as it moves through ever-expanding space. Most galaxies are continuously moving away, and as they get farther out, the light they emit shifts toward longer wavelengths at the redder end of the electromagnetic spectrum.Imaging from the JWST, as explained in a study published in Nature, pinned an initial redshift estimate of 12.9 for the galaxy, and further analysis yielded a more definitive redshift of 13.0; this figure indicates that the galaxy was observed at 330 million years after the Big Bang.Rethinking ReionizationResearchers, however, didnt expect to see the prominent Lyman-alpha radiation that was captured along with the galaxy.Much of the neutral hydrogen fog that permeated the early universe dissipated during a time called the epoch of reionization. As this period unfolded, the neutral hydrogen started to separate into ionized gas (due to light from early stars), causing the universe to become more transparent. The role of the Lyman-alpha radiation raises many questions for researchers, seemingly setting the initial stages of reionization to 330 million years after the Big Bang.We really shouldnt have found a galaxy like this, given our understanding of the way the universe has evolved, said co-author Kevin Hainline from the University of Arizona in a statement. We could think of the early universe as shrouded with a thick fog that would make it exceedingly difficult to find even powerful lighthouses peeking through, yet here we see the beam of light from this galaxy piercing the veil.How Galactic Light Came to BeResearchers are uncertain about the exact source of radiation from GS-z13-1, but theyve drawn up a few theories. One possibility is that the light may have come from the earliest generation of stars formed in the universe, hotter and more luminous than stars formed in later epochs. Researchers say the light could also potentially have roots in a powerful galactic nucleus that was driven by one of the first supermassive black holes.The research team is ready to uncover answers with additional observations of GS-z13-1, which could help shape entirely new perspectives of the early universe and how reionization brought sweeping changes. Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:NASA. Cosmological RedshiftCenter for Astrophysics. Preparing to Study the Epoch of ReionizationJack Knudson is an assistant editor at Discover with a strong interest in environmental science and history. Before joining Discover in 2023, he studied journalism at the Scripps College of Communication at Ohio University and previously interned at Recycling Today magazine

Spring brings warmer temperatures, fresh greenery, and the return of birdsong. Songbirds are known for performing species-specific tunes to attract mates and defend their territories. But how do birds learn these signature songs? Much like humans, it takes time and practice to master a skill.To understand the brain signals involved in birds intrinsic desire to learn their songs, a research team from Duke University, North Carolina, closely studied how zebra finches practice their songs until they perfect them. Their findings, published in Nature, offer insights into the learning process in both birds and humans.Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic LearningWhen studying learning, its important to distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation comes from external factors like rewards or punishments, while intrinsic motivation is driven from within.Although skills can be learned through both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, intrinsic learning often leads to deeper, more lasting knowledge. Dopamine, a neurotransmitter, plays a crucial role in transmitting brain signals involved in learning, reward, and motivation between neurons. By tracking dopamine flow in the brain, scientists can better understand the molecular mechanisms behind intrinsic motivation to learn.Zebra finches, native to Australia, are a favored model species for studying various traits, including vocal learning. Their simple yet complex vocalizations make them ideal for investigating how animals learn to master skills.The amount of effort that a juvenile bird makes to achieve vocal mastery is immense, said Duke neuroscientist Richard Mooney in a press release, It takes them about one month of solid practice every day, up to 10,000 renditions a day.Practice Makes DopamineTo study learning for its own sake, young male zebra finches that had memorized their male parents courtship song were kept in individual soundproof rooms. This setup allowed them to practice their singing without external interference. As the birds practiced, their initial random squeaks gradually turned into melodies that closely matched their parents songs.As the birds slowly perfected their tunes, the research team also measured dopamine levels in the birds basal ganglia, a brain region involved in learning motor skills. They used optogenetics, a technique involving genetically modified proteins that glow when certain neurochemicals are released, to track brain activity something that traditional methods, which measure electrical signals, cannot easily do.What surprised the researchers was that whenever a bird practiced, dopamine levels in the basal ganglia increased. According to the press release, it didnt matter whether the bird hit all the notes or missed some any attempt at singing triggered the brain's reward pathways. Additionally, the better the bird performed relative to its age, the more dopamine was released, and vice versa.Findings Apply Across SpeciesThe study showed that dopamine, long known to be involved in externally driven learning, plays a key role in intrinsic motivation, too. Despite the lack of external feedback, the birds efforts to learn their songs demonstrate how intrinsic motivation can drive successful learning, independent of waiting for a reward or fearing punishment.In addition to dopamines role, the researchers also identified acetylcholine as another important chemical messenger in the process.These findings translate across species, said neurology professor John Pearson in the release. The brain regions and neurochemicals involved namely the basal ganglia, dopamine and acetylcholine are shared by mice, primates, humans. Essentially every animal with a backbone.By studying how birds learn to sing, we can gain a better understanding of ourselves. Insights into dopamine signaling in the basal ganglia could also help improve our understanding of neurological diseases such as Parkinsons and schizophrenia, as well as how we learn skills like playing an instrument or riding a bike.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Having worked as a biomedical research assistant in labs across three countries, Jenny excels at translating complex scientific concepts ranging from medical breakthroughs and pharmacological discoveries to the latest in nutrition into engaging, accessible content. Her interests extend to topics such as human evolution, psychology, and quirky animal stories. When shes not immersed in a popular science book, youll find her catching waves or cruising around Vancouver Island on her longboard.

(Image Credit: Tami Freed/Shutterstock) While trilobites, like the ones pictured here, survived for millions of years, they did not survive the "Great Dying." However, clams took over the oceans in the aftermath of the end-Permian extinction, along with oysters, snails, and slugs.NewsletterSign up for our email newsletter for the latest science newsEarths largest mass extinction eliminated a lot of marine species. But it didnt eliminate them all. According to a study in Science Advances, warm, oxygen-depleted waters may have helped select survivors of the end-Permian extinction in the aftermath of the event around 252 million years ago, allowing them to expand their ranges throughout Earths oceans. The results reveal how marine animals have recovered from past mass extinctions and how they could recover from mass extinctions in the present and future, too.Our study has provided a simple environmental explanation, rather than an ecological one, for why certain survivors of the end-Permian extinction prospered, said senior study author Jonathan Payne, a paleobiology professor at Stanford University, according to a press release.Surviving the Great DyingDuring the Great Dying around 252 million years ago, approximately 80 percent of marine species disappeared from the face of the Earth. During the Great Dulling that followed, select species survived and thrived, spreading so extensively that the marine life in one corner of the oceans looked startlingly similar to the marine life in all other corners.Thanks to the success of these select species, marine populations moved from richly diverse communities before the end-Permian extinction to boringly alike communities after a transformation seen wherever you look, Payne said, according to the press release. Over the years, researchers have suggested several explanations as to why this transformation occurred. Some have proposed that the disappearance of certain predators and competitors allowed some of the surviving creatures to thrive. And others have proposed that the climate changes associated with the end-Permian era suited certain surviving animals more than others, allowing them to spread almost everywhere throughout the planet.To determine whether either of these theories hold water, Payne and a team turned to ocean temperatures, harnessing geochemical evidence to create an environmental model for the end-Permian era. Explaining the taxonomic homogenization in the aftermath of the extinction, the model suggests that certain creatures mainly mollusks flourished thanks to the onset of warmer water temperatures. Success in Warm Waters Applying evidence from experiments on extant marine animals, the team populated their model with the modern relatives of the creatures of the end-Permian era. Complete with mollusks like clams, oysters, snails, and slugs, the model showed how various animals mightve responded to the climate changes of 252 million years ago based on their modern relatives abilities to survive similar shifts in their environments. Still recovering from the intense volcanic activity that triggered the era, Earths oceans were warm in the aftermath of the end-Permian extinction and oxygen-drained. In fact, in addition to the impacts of water temperature, the teams model also considered the impacts of water oxygenation, finding that the eras oxygen-depleted waters were another factor in the mollusks worldwide success. A Model for the Past, Present, and FutureUltimately, the model allowed the team to study mass extinctions in a new way, giving them a better sense of why some animal groups made it through while others perished, Payne said, according to the press release.But its insights arent limited to the end-Permian extinction, however, as the model can also reveal how animals might fare in the present and the future, in the face of the looming mass extinction thats been brought on by human activity. Our model offers a great way of studying how animals respond to extreme changes in the environment, said lead study author Jood Al Aswad, a paleobiology Ph.D. candidate, also at Stanford, according to the press release. With anthropogenically spurred climate change, there has been some warning that if we continue, then in the future, were going to see taxonomic homogenization of organisms in modern oceans as well.Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Sam Walters is a journalist covering archaeology, paleontology, ecology, and evolution for Discover, along with an assortment of other topics. Before joining the Discover team as an assistant editor in 2022, Sam studied journalism at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.1 free article leftWant More? Get unlimited access for as low as $1.99/monthSubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In1 free articleSubscribeWant more?Keep reading for as low as $1.99!SubscribeAlready a subscriber?Register or Log In

Cold plunging has become all the rage. Whether in the ocean, rivers, lakes, or your own personal cold plunge bath, enthusiasts claim that the therapy has a host of benefits, both mentally and physically, from reducing anxiety to reducing brain fog and improving focus.Its also been touted for improving athletic performance, reducing inflammation and joint pain, improving immunity, and increasing metabolism. But are any of these benefits backed by science?Shock the Body with Cold Water PlungeWhile theres no defined temperature for whats considered cold water plunging, anything below 31 degrees Celsius or around 88 degrees Fahrenheit would count, says Franois Haman, a professor of human performance at the University of Ottawa who has been studying cold water plunging for 20 years.Cold water plunging is impacted by how cold the water is and how long you stay in it. The colder the water and the lower your body weight, the faster your body cools down. But typically, when people are choosing to cold water plunge, theyre more likely to choose ice water thats cold enough to shock and stress the body.Read More: 6 Ways to Exercise Outdoors in WinterCold Water Plunge Mental Benefits The response to cold water plunging varies from person to person, but Haman says that there are some consistent benefits that we see across the board. Although, its important to note that the research into both the mental and physical health benefits is very limited and are mostly observational studies, which dont compare participants who plunge with those who dont plunge.The main benefits are mostly psychological and come from facing and succeeding at a challenge, says Haman.Endorphins are released along with dopamine and catecholamines, a stimulant [that plays a role in the body's response to stress], says Haman. These are all known to be mood enhancers.A November 2020 study published in the journal Lifestyle Medicine found that swimmers who swam in cold seawater for 10 weeks saw a marked improvement in their mood and sense of well-being. But its unclear whether it was the cold water that contributed to the mood improvement or other factors such as being outside, swimming, or being with a group of like-minded individuals.Other research published in the January 2023 issue of the journal Biology found that cold water plungers felt less distressed and nervous after having a cold-water bath. But its unclear whether these mental health benefits are short-term and an immediate response to the cold water or whether theyre long-lasting.Cold Water Plunge Benefits for the BodyCold or ice therapy has been shown to work on localized inflammation.Its been well documented that cold therapy works to manage inflammation and can help improve circulation to areas such that theres enhanced recovery for an individual, says Steven K. Malin, an associate professor in the Department of Kinesiology and Health at Rutgers University.For example, if you sprain an ankle or strain a muscle, cold therapy can help these parts of the body heal because if theres too much localized inflammation, the bodys tissues cannot repair themselves properly, says Malin.Cold therapy may also work to increase metabolism and help you burn more calories, but the number is quite minimal, says Malin, at around 50 calories per day. Cold water plunging may also promote recovery from exercise.The Risks of Cold Water PlungingHaman says that its important to be cautious when it comes to cold water plunging. Dont plunge more than once per week, and dont plunge for more than a few minutes at a time. If you have high blood pressure, you should avoid cold water plunging because it constricts the blood vessels, and plunging too much can also damage the nerves in your extremities.But for most of us, plunging is not only fun, it may also make you feel good, at least for a bit.This article is not offering medical advice and should be used for informational purposes only Article SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Mayo Clinic Health System. Can taking a cold plunge after your workout be beneficial?Sara Novak is a science journalist based in South Carolina. In addition to writing for Discover, her work appears in Scientific American, Popular Science, New Scientist, Sierra Magazine, Astronomy Magazine, and many more. She graduated with a bachelors degree in Journalism from the Grady School of Journalism at the University of Georgia. She's also a candidate for a masters degree in science writing from Johns Hopkins University, (expected graduation 2023).