risks CT scans could cause 5% of cancers, study finds; experts note uncertainty The estimates are small and uncertain, but balancing risks and benefits is critical. Beth Mole – Apr 14, 2025 7:18 pm | 25 A CT scanner Credit: Getty | Ryan McFadden A CT scanner Credit: Getty | Ryan McFadden Story text Size Small Standard Large Width * Standard Wide Links Standard Orange * Subscribers only   Learn more Computed tomography scans have become vital, even lifesaving, medical imaging for diagnosing and monitoring health conditions. But they do expose patients to ionizing radiation at levels linked to higher risks of cancer. In a new study in JAMA Internal Medicine, researchers tried to estimate what those higher risks are exactly—and although the estimates come with uncertainty, they may seem startling. Based on data from 93 million CT scans performed on 62 million people in 2023, the researchers estimated that the CT scans would lead to 103,000 future cancers. To put that in context, those 103,000 cancers would account for about 5 percent of cancers diagnosed each year, based on the current cancer rates and the current usage of CT scans. And the estimate puts CT scans on par with alcohol consumption and obesity in terms of risk factors for developing cancer. The most common types of cancers estimated to be a result of CT scans were lung cancer and colon cancer—two cancers that are becoming more common in younger people for reasons experts do not fully understand. The types of CT scans linked to the greatest number of cancers were abdomen and pelvis CT scans. The study's authors—led by epidemiology and biostatistics researchers at the University of California, San Francisco—concluded that doctors should use CT scans when they can be justified and at optimized doses to balance the risks and benefits. "CT is frequently lifesaving, yet its potential harms are often overlooked, and even very small cancer risks will lead to a significant number of future cancers given the tremendous volume of CT use in the United States," they write. Since 2007, use of CT scans has increased 35 percent, an increase not entirely explained by population growth, they note. Outside experts agreed that CT scans should be used judiciously. But, they highlighted that there is much uncertainty in the modeling, which tried to assess absorbed doses in different organs and the increased risk of site-specific cancer. While some large studies have found links between CT scans in children and young adults and increased risks of blood and brain cancers,  the risks for adults have largely been extrapolated from studies on Japanese atomic bomb survivors or people with occupational radiation exposures. Uncertainty and balancing "The estimates, while based on the best models available to the authors, are indirect, so there is considerable uncertainty about the estimates," Stephen Duffy, emeritus professor of Cancer Screening at Queen Mary University of London, said in a statement. "Thus, I would say to patients that if you are recommended to have a CT scan, it would be wise to do so." Duffy also highlighted that in the context of a person's overall risk of cancer, CT scans don't move the needle much. There were a little over 100,000 cancers linked to 93 million scans. "This amounts to around a 0.1 percent increase in cancer risk over the patient's lifetime per CT examination," he said. The lifetime risk of cancer in the US population is around 40 percent. Thus, the additional risk from CT scans "is small." Overall, when a CT scan is deemed necessary, the "likely benefit in diagnosis and subsequent treatment of disease outweighs the very small increase in cancer risk." Doreen Lau, a cancer biology expert at Brunel University of London, agreed: "The findings don’t mean that people should avoid CT scans when recommended by a doctor. In most cases, the benefit of detecting or ruling out serious illness far outweighs the very small risk of harm." Still, the rise in CT scans in recent years may suggest that doctors could cut back on their use. In an accompanying editorial, Ilana Richman of Yale University and Mitchell Katz of NYC Health and Hospitals discussed ways that doctors could make sure they're balancing risks and benefits before using CT scans, including using diagnostic algorithms and offering alternative imaging options, such as ultrasounds and magnetic resonance imaging (MRIs). "As with all complex problems, there will be no simple solution," they write. But, "educating clinicians about avoiding low-value testing and, in circumstances where alternatives are readily available, involving patients in the decision to do a CT scan may help shift culture and practice." Beth Mole Senior Health Reporter Beth Mole Senior Health Reporter Beth is Ars Technica’s Senior Health Reporter. Beth has a Ph.D. in microbiology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and attended the Science Communication program at the University of California, Santa Cruz. She specializes in covering infectious diseases, public health, and microbes. 25 Comments

The camp at Dome C on the East Antarctic plateau where the Beyond EPICA team are drilling ice coresRob Mulvaney More than a century ago, explorers from several countries raced to reach the globe’s southernmost point, driven by fierce international rivalries. Now, a new race is under way in Antarctica, this time motivated by the need to understand one of the gravest threats facing humanity. While other ancient climate records exist, only the ancient ice near the poles holds a perfect record of the atmosphere’s carbon dioxide levels and temperature.

Sophie Steiner moved to Shanghai in 2015. Sophie Steiner 2025-04-15T00:14:02Z Save Saved Read in app This story is available exclusively to Business Insider subscribers. Become an Insider and start reading now. Have an account? Sophie Steiner moved from Chicago to Shanghai 10 years ago with a year-and-a-half work contract. She was well-traveled and expected to settle in quickly, but it took longer than she anticipated. On a recent trip back to her hometown in the Midwest, she felt like she didn't fit in there either. I touched down in Shanghai from Chicago in 2015, armed with a year-and-a-half work contract, an overstuffed suitcase, and 20 more boxes en route. It was not the most conventional way to arrive in a country I'd never set foot in. But after stints in Israel and Argentina, I saw myself as a "global citizen," convinced I'd settle in within weeks. Spoiler: I was wildly overconfident.The lesson came swiftly: China does not bend its will. Instead, one learns to adapt, to alter one's rhythm to the customs of this vast nation. I've found that the answer to most questions is merely, "because China." We moved into a high-rise complex "maze" in Shanghai, which has a population equivalent to that of my husband's hometown. As the years passed, I learned to expect boiling tea at restaurants even during sweltering months, and stopped being shocked when every face wash included skin-whitening ingredients.The mantra was used during many moments of frustration as I attempted to navigate this foreign culture.Culture shock, both waysDuring my first few years in China, I lived for those rare moments when a local would compliment my minimal but slowly improving Chinese. Yet, it was more common for children to point at me and shout: "Look, mom, a laowai!" A foreigner. No matter how many Chinese landmarks I visited, soap operas I watched, pop culture references I learned, or hours I spent practicing writing Chinese characters, I would forever be a laowai. Steiner's definition of home has evolved over the years, for now, it's Shanghai. Sophie Steiner On a recent trip back to my hometown in the US, I took part in one of my favorite end-of-summer pilgrimages: the Minnesota State Fair — an annual ritual for every ever-affable Midwesterner, myself included — filled with carnival parade antics, agricultural exhibits, fireworks, and, most importantly, the overconsumption of all things sugared, battered, and fried.I weaved through the rows of American flags, snapping photos. The unfamiliarity felt similar to what I felt during my first year in China, — mouth agape with reverse culture shock. I didn't fit in anymore with my football-throwing, beer-chugging, farm-friendly kin. Yet again, I found myself a foreigner, but this time in a familiar land.Friends feel like foreignersMy definition of home has evolved over the years, and my everyday practices have changed alongside it. From perpetually drinking hot water to cure any ailment to relying on Traditional Chinese Medicine — like acupuncture and Chinese herbs — rather than Western remedies, my values and beliefs have shifted in ways I never anticipated. I will never fully belong in Chinese culture, just as I will never quite fit into the mold of my American upbringing either.This sense of alienation is a common theme for many expatriates. It's a bittersweet realization: the more you adapt to a new culture, the more you risk losing touch with your roots. By living abroad, I've traded the dream of a house with 2.4 kids and a white picket fence for the freedom to microdose retirement — traveling on a whim to far-flung islands across Asia.As the world becomes increasingly multicultural, feelings of dislocation and juxtaposing belonging often resonate. While I am technically not a "third culture kid" — a term coined by sociologist Ruth Hill Useem referring to those who spend their formative years outside their parents' home country, resulting in a lack of belonging in both places — I find myself a "third culture adult." I blend elements of my American upbringing with experiences gained in China, forming a distinctly fluid identity that doesn't quite fit into traditional categories.I struggle to relate to friends and family back home — they don't understand my yearning to hike the upper reaches of the Tibetan Autonomous Region or my fixation on black sesame desserts. It all sounds foreign to them, just as their experiences of refurbishing their bathroom for the umpteenth time feel foreign to me. After 10 years of living in China, the author has been able to travel on a whim across Asia. Sophie Steiner My search for belongingNow, I have learned to embrace the "China moments" that arise with a sense of humor and humility. During my early years in China, being called laowai was a marker of my otherness. Now, I wear it as a badge of honor, evidence of my journey and growth. As I look ahead, I recognize that my path is not just about navigating the complexities of being a foreigner in another country but also about reconciling that identity with my origins. Perhaps I'm not meant to belong entirely anywhere but instead to find solace in the spaces between cultures.I embrace my life in Shanghai and the challenges that come with it. Do you have a story to share about relocating to a city in Asia? Contact the editor at akarplus@businessinsider.com. Recommended video

Cheaper than a PS5 Digital Edition (YouTube) The Tuesday letters page suggests that Mario Kart World is the video game bargain of the year, as a reader ponders the effect of nostalgia on live service games. To join in with the discussions yourself email gamecentral@metro.co.uk Bad timingThat’s some big brain moves from Sony there, increasing the price of the PlayStation 5 just two months before the Switch 2 comes up and making sure Nintendo’s machine is the cheapest still. I think I’m beginning to agree with the notion that nobody in the games industry knows what they’re doing and definitely doesn’t seem to have any sense of timing. I’m not sure what effect this is going to have in the long term, and I’m sure Sony doesn’t either, but it’s certainly going to mean the PlayStation 5 no longer has any chance of beating the PlayStation 4. With the Xbox Series X/S no longer relevant and the Switch 1 on the way out I’m sure Sony feel it’s now worth the risk to increase the price but whoever thought that would happen five years after it first came out? I know it’s not entirely their fault, given the madness in America, but just think what this means for PlayStation 6 prices, once we start to get into that over the next year or two.Focus First mover disadvantage I’ve got to admit I’m shocked at the price increase of the PlayStation 5, so late in the generation and completely out of the blue. Well, obviously we all know about the tariffs but… they don’t affect anywhere but the US, in terms of imports, so why is the rest of the world getting price hikes?Unfortunately, this was predicted as soon as the tariffs started, when people said that companies would not increase the price in the US, which is their biggest market, more than they absolutely have to and try to offset that by increasing them everywhere else too. Who know what’s going to happen to the Switch 2 price between now and launch but if it doesn’t change in the rest of the world that will immediately make Nintendo some fans. Even more if we learnt that other companies really are planning to charge £100 for new games. This whole thing is turning into a nightmare though and I really don’t think Sony is doing itself any favours by being so eager to increase the prices.Cranston Changing times The PlayStation 5 is getting a price increase nearly five years after it came out? The second one it’s already had?! And now it’s more expensive than the Nintendo Switch 2? We truly are living in the darkest, dumbest timeline.I already have a PlayStation 5, so I guess this doesn’t affect me that much, but the whole thing seems so crazy. I don’t know what’s happened to gaming in the last few years. It’s like it’s changed out of all recognition and it’s getting worse – and I don’t like anything about it. Too few big games, too high prices, and Nintendo is not the cure-all some hoped. This generation was a mistake, let alone the next one.Morse Email your comments to: gamecentral@metro.co.uk The Mortal Kombat test With the new season of The Last Of Us out this week (I haven’t seen it myself) I can’t help comparing its critical success with the Minecraft movie.I see people constantly referring to video game movies getting better, but I really don’t know what they mean? Borderlands was one of the worst films of last year, Minecraft is bad, even the Mario Bros. movie wasn’t very good. The only one that everyone seems to agree is good is the Sonic The Hedgehog movies, but only good in an ‘okay’ sense. Is that really the best we can do? And more importantly, does it pass the test of being better than the original Mortal Kombat movie? Not in my opinion. Video game TV shows might be good, but I still don’t see any evidence you can make a decent two hour movie out of them.Winston Single wish I’m looking forward to the Mario Kart World Direct this Thursday. I really enjoyed the Switch 2 announcement and announcement of Mario Kart World, Donkey Kong Bananza, and the other games and features mentioned.I’m hoping with the new game there will be a single-player story mode or campaign like in Diddy Kong Racing, as although I have enjoyed the various versions of Mario Kart games (except the mobile version) I would like them to improve on the single-player experience, as well as the multiplayer experience.Andrew J. Flat circle I notice that Call Of Duty: Warzone is the latest in a long line of online games that has managed to stage a comeback by bringing back an earlier version, in this case the map Verdansk.This raises a lot of questions for me, the first being what do they do next time there’s a dip? They can’t play the nostalgia card again – you can’t make people nostalgic for the time they made you nostalgic. Or at least I don’t think you can. Fortnite was the first to do it but I’m sure they’ll all end up going that way soon, since it’s being proved to work in other games too. It worries me that it’s another example of everything just chasing its own tail. You might not get sequels with live service games but now we’re getting the equivalent, where they reach a certain point and then fold back on themselves, ready to start it all again. Actually, I guess World Of Warcraft started it all, with the classic version. If the end result of these live service games lasting five or 10 years is that everyone decides they were better before they added anything new I really don’t know what that’s saying. Other than it makes it seem like the whole thing has been a waste of time.Franky Bargain of the yearI know the physical edition price is getting all the attention, but I think if you look beyond that Mario Kart World is looking pretty amazing. It’s basically £34 if you buy it with the console and for that you get the biggest shake-up the series has ever seen, with a huge open world and tons of extra stuff that I suspect we’ve barely seen the half of yet. There’s a Direct just for the game on Thursday and yet normally you would’ve thought you’d seen all you need to of the game by now, considering the last Direct seemed pretty detailed. So yes, the physical version is too much, but I wouldn’t say the digital is and the bundle price seems like the bargain of the year to me.Caski Price reversalSo, there we have it. The Nintendo Switch 2 will be cheaper than the PS5 – a console that’s now approaching its fifth birthday. This isn’t because Nintendo is playing a clever game to undercut its competition, but rather due to Sony’s decision to implement a second price increase this generation. What stands out most to me is that the past is no longer a reliable indicator of how the future will unfold. Traditionally, console prices go down over time, as components become cheaper. Now, we’re seeing the opposite. In addition, game prices, stagnant for so long, are rising – fast. Count me among those who predict GTA 6 will launch at around £100. As for the Switch 2 launch itself? I actually think it was fine overall. It didn’t blow me away, but the hardware looks solid, there’s clearly more third party support, and the price is reasonable. The jump to £75 for physical editions of Nintendo’s top tier franchises feels steep (both Zelda games on the Switch retailed at £60) but at least Nintendo is acknowledging that digital versions should be cheaper than physical ones. Gamers have been asking this question for years: why are digital games the same price – or sometimes even more expensive – than physical copies, when there are fewer overheads involved? We always knew the answer was greed. Hopefully, other publishers – who’ll be quick to charge £75 for physical games – will follow suit and price digital versions lower. But honestly, I doubt it. All in all, we’re now watching game prices climb like olive oil and eggs have in recent times. Our hobby has become another casualty of the cost of living crisis. It was inevitable but that doesn’t make it welcome or comfortable. I’m fortunate enough to have saved for the Switch 2 and have already pre-ordered one, but from here on out I’ll be a lot more selective – reading reviews and waiting for sales before picking up any new games, and I’m sure most will feel similar.Matt Inbox also-rans Is anyone really looking forwards to The Outer Worlds 2 so much that they want it to be the game Microsoft spends 30 minutes on for not-E3? It took me a good few minutes to remember what the first game even was.LumpyAfter reading that the Dragon Age and Mass Effect teams never got on I’ve resigned myself to never getting a new Mass Effect. I think BioWare are probably not long for this world, after the failure of The Veilguard, and it’s a real shame.Hedorah More Trending Email your comments to: gamecentral@metro.co.uk The small printNew Inbox updates appear every weekday morning, with special Hot Topic Inboxes at the weekend. Readers’ letters are used on merit and may be edited for length and content. You can also submit your own 500 to 600-word Reader’s Feature at any time via email or our Submit Stuff page, which if used will be shown in the next available weekend slot. You can also leave your comments below and don’t forget to follow us on Twitter. GameCentral Sign up for exclusive analysis, latest releases, and bonus community content. This site is protected by reCAPTCHA and the Google Privacy Policy and Terms of Service apply. Your information will be used in line with our Privacy Policy

The Borderlands movie came out last year and was largely met with derision, then indifference. What did the movie in? You’ll get a different answer depending on who you ask, but director Eli Roth thinks part of the issue was when it was made. In case you forgot, Borderlands began filming in 2021 during the early days of the covid-19 pandemic. Speaking in a recent episode of The Town podcast, Roth recalled how no one—specifically during that production, or Hollywood overall—”anticipated how complicated things were gonna be with covid.” Back then, things were so chaotic because distancing protocols meant “we couldn’t prep in a room together. I couldn’t be with my stunt people or do pre-vis, everyone’s spread all over the place.” “You have six people that are all on different sets and every one of those sets is getting shut down because the cities have opened up,” Roth continued. Making a big-budget movie at that size was a challenge, and a humbling one. (“I think we all thought we could pull it off and we got our asses handed to us a bit,” he admitted.) For Roth, things were further complicated by him filming his slasher movie Thanksgiving in 2023, prompting Deadpool director Tim Miller to lead Borderlands‘ reshoots in 2023. Said reshoots also contained new pages from writer Zak Olkewicz, which built off the rewrites already done to Craig Mazin’s initial 2020 script. So by the time he’d moved onto Thanksgiving, Roth basically knew what was going with Borderlands as much as we did. When he finally watched it, he noted how surreal it was to “sit down to watch my own movie that says I wrote and directed it, and I genuinely don’t know what’s going to happen.” None of this soured his relationship with Lionsgate, but it did teach him to stop taking the hits for something he was only half-involved with and prompted a return back to horror. [via Dark Horizons] Want more io9 news? Check out when to expect the latest Marvel, Star Wars, and Star Trek releases, what’s next for the DC Universe on film and TV, and everything you need to know about the future of Doctor Who.

Pool House / buck&simpleSave this picture!© Prue Ruscoe Architects: buck&simple Area Area of this architecture project Area:  37 m² Year Completion year of this architecture project Year:  2024 Photographs Photographs:Prue Ruscoe Manufacturers Brands with products used in this architecture project Manufacturers:  Fisher & Paykel, Miele, Armadillo, Autodesk Revit, Award Pools, Bisazza, Broadware, Brook Douglas Pty Ltd, By Contractor, Captive Cabinetmaking, Dulux, FLOS, Fanke, Fielders, Inigo Jones & CO, Liebherr, Life Interiors, MCM House, Muuto, Robert Gordon, +5 Lead Architect: Peter Ahern More SpecsLess Specs Save this picture! Text description provided by the architects. Located on the traditional lands of the Eora people, tucked behind a traditional semi, Pool House is a hidden backyard gem in the Eastern Suburbs. A statement in simple function, its robust natural materials make it a focal point for leisure and relaxation.Save this picture!Buck & Simple designed a structure that harmonizes with its suburban surroundings while providing a highly functional and aesthetically appealing outdoor living space. Natural elements such as wood and stone enhance its contextual relevance, creating a soothing atmosphere.Save this picture!Defined by a minimalist yet durable material palette, the pool house serves as a retreat for entertaining, relaxing, and gathering. It balances privacy with an open connection to the backyard and pool. As the first stage of a broader development, it functions as a secondary dwelling, catering to a shift-working family member while enhancing daily rituals through passive design, natural materials, and seamless indoor-outdoor integration.Save this picture!Save this picture!Save this picture!Save this picture!Guided by simplicity, material integrity, and a strong connection to place, Pool House fosters a calm, functional environment where form and purpose coexist. Passive design strategies maximize ventilation, natural light, and thermal performance, reducing reliance on mechanical systems. Time-tested construction techniques ensure durability, aligning with a budget-conscious, function-forward approach. Locally sourced and recycled materials age gracefully, minimizing environmental impact.Save this picture!The pavilion-like structure blurs indoor and outdoor boundaries, reinforcing a connection to nature. Through craftsmanship and material honesty, it maintains an enduring quality where raw materials tell a story of time and use. Every element is intentional, supporting mindful living through spatial clarity, sustainable choices, and timeless materials.Save this picture!Enhancing daily life as a tranquil retreat, Pool House strengthens the family's bond with nature and the pool. Expansive openings invite fresh air and natural light, ensuring year-round comfort. Durable, tactile materials promote ease of use and low maintenance, allowing the space to evolve over time. Designed for both solitude and social gatherings, it fosters relaxation, connection, and enjoyment.Save this picture!Carefully positioned to integrate with the pool and landscape, the structure extends outdoor living. Large sliding openings enhance airflow, while a restrained material palette echoes water, stone, and timber, ensuring harmony with its setting. Thoughtful orientation maximizes natural light and ventilation, providing shade, shelter, and an inviting atmosphere.Save this picture!Strategic decisions balance high-quality design with cost efficiency. Durable, low-maintenance materials, including Fijian mahogany cladding, ensure longevity. Challenges such as water and rock in the groundwork were resolved with careful planning, incorporating a stormwater retention system. Passive design principles, including solar orientation and a burnished floor, enhance energy efficiency while reducing costs. A streamlined structural approach optimized construction expenses without compromising design. These thoughtful decisions resulted in a refined, timeless space that enhances the family's lifestyle for years to come. Project gallerySee allShow less About this officebuck&simpleOffice••• MaterialsMaterials and TagsPublished on April 14, 2025Cite: "Pool House / buck&simple" 14 Apr 2025. ArchDaily. Accessed . <https://www.archdaily.com/1028972/pool-house-buck-and-simple&gt ISSN 0719-8884Save世界上最受欢迎的建筑网站现已推出你的母语版本!想浏览ArchDaily中国吗?是否 You've started following your first account!Did you know?You'll now receive updates based on what you follow! Personalize your stream and start following your favorite authors, offices and users.Go to my stream

If one were to eat substances from blandest to nastiest, the bracket fungus, Amaropostia stiptica, would sit at the farthest end of the unpleasant spectrum.A team of scientists determined just what makes that particular fungus so aggressively distasteful, a group of researchers report in the Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry. They identified a compound called oligoporin D in the bracket fungus that activates the human bitter taste receptor TAS2R46. The substance is so strong that even barely detectable amounts would probably cause humans to spit it out and desperately search for something to rinse the rancid taste out of their mouths.The authors report that no human subjects were nauseated by this study. Instead, they grew cells that harbored an assortment of human bitter taste receptors. Think of them as a tongue in a petri dish.What Causes Bitterness?The researchers were driven to explore this topic because of what is essentially a bitterness knowledge gap. We have a fairly broad and simplistic understanding of what causes bitterness and why certain substances might exhibit it.“Bitter taste perception cautions humans against the ingestion of potentially toxic compounds,” according to the paper. “However, current knowledge about natural bitter substances and their activation of human bitter taste receptors (TAS2Rs) is biased toward substances from flowering plants, whereas other sources are underrepresented. Although numerous mushrooms taste bitter, the corresponding substances and receptors are unexplored.”Bitterness Doesn't Always Mean PoisonousThe researchers hypothesize that some fungi evolved bitterness to avoid being eaten by humans and animals, both of which devour mushroom. “Therefore, it is not surprising that some mushrooms synthesize powerful bitter substances to prevent their consumption,” the paper continued.Somewhat surprisingly, though, bitterness level doesn’t necessarily mean something is poisonous. “In fact, some of the most bitter mushrooms such as the bitter bolete (Tylopilus felleus) are not poisonous, whereas the taste of the deadly death cap (Amanita phalloides) is described as pleasant and nutty,” the paper concluded, making the relationship between taste and toxicity “tenuous at best.”After the scientists determined which substances they tested were the most bitter, they determined their molecular structure — presumably so food scientists will know what flavors not to emulate.Read More: How Our Sense of Taste Evolves and AdaptsArticle SourcesOur writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:Before joining Discover Magazine, Paul Smaglik spent over 20 years as a science journalist, specializing in U.S. life science policy and global scientific career issues. He began his career in newspapers, but switched to scientific magazines. His work has appeared in publications including Science News, Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

Archeologists analyzed a dataset of over 50,000 homes across history and location. Credit: Linda Nicholas and Gary Feinman Get the Popular Science daily newsletter💡 A team at Chicago’s Field Museum has published a first-of-its-kind study analyzing 10,000 years’ worth of wealth disparity across six continents. The results, published on April 14 in the journal PNAS, contradict many longstanding assumptions about inequality’s inevitability and how societies organize over time. America’s wealth disparity is arguably wider than it has ever been in modern history. But such economic injustice—even when not as stark—isn’t necessarily the unavoidable result of population growth or governmental policy. “The traditional thinking expects that once you get larger societies with formal leaders, or once you have farming, inequality is going to go way up,” Gary Feinman, the Field Museum’s MacArthur Curator of Mesoamerican, Central American, and East Asian Anthropology and paper lead author, said in a statement. “These ideas have been held for hundreds of years, and what we find is that it’s more complicated than that.” The study builds on fieldwork that includes excavations in Oaxaca, Mexico. Credit: Linda Nicholas and Gary Feinman Feinman and colleagues focused on what he described as an “unprecedented” dataset that includes 50,000 homes located across 1,000 archeological sites around the world. In particular, they used house size and evidence of decorative ornamentation as indicators of wealth or poverty. “Variability in the sizes of houses may not be the full extent of wealth differences, but it’s a consistent indicator of the degree of economic inequality that can be applied across time and space,” said Feinman, citing his own fieldwork experience. “[I]the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico… almost always, the larger the house, the more elaborate the house, with special features and thicker walls,” he explained. The team used the house measurements to help calculate what’s known as a Gini coefficient. (Although a eugenicist and prominent Italian fascist during and after World War II, Corrado Gini’s namesake remains a frequently used statistical measurement to assess a region or population’s economic inequality.) The coefficient relies on a 0–1 range, with 0 representing total equality and 1 representing maximum inequality. The coefficients calculated from the data were then compared across time and space to examine how disparities varied depending on political system, population, and other possible factors. Researchers soon realized that the size of a society doesn’t always align with an increase in inequality.  For centuries, many experts have argued that the rise of formal governance, agriculture, and technological progress leads to disparity across socio-economic groups. Historians often point to ancient Greece and Rome, or European medieval societies, as generalized representations of humanity’s collective past. “High degrees of inequality are not inevitable in large societies,” said Feinman. “There are factors that may make it easier to happen or increase to high degrees, but these factors can be leveled off or modified by different human decisions and institutions.” Researchers argue in their paper that human choice, governance, and cooperation can play vital roles in minimizing inequality. What’s more, economic strife doesn’t need to be expected in larger populations or more hierarchical governments. “And if inequality isn’t inevitable… [then] the often-expressed views that certain economic, demographic, or technological conditions or factors make great wealth disparities inevitable simply are not borne out by our global past,” said Feinman.

Nature, Published online: 14 April 2025; doi:10.1038/d41586-025-01217-6Leaked budget documents indicate which research programmes are at risk of being defunded in 2026.

Discover important facts about what climate change is, what's causing it, and what we can do to stop it.